Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation

(SC3201)

Introduction To measurements
(1)

Musaab Zaroug
• Measures: since the start of human civilization…….regulate trades fairly
• Improved with the industrial revolution, electronics/computers …(more
accuracy)
• For cost effectiveness…. More accurate and cheaper instruments
(manufacturers)….>>>> digital computing
• Measurement units: starts with hand, feet>>>>imprecise
• First improved measurement unit was meter>>> how to define it !!!
- 10 -7 the polar quadrant of the earth
- Platinum bar (at certain temperature)
- 1.65076373× 10 -6 wavelength of radiation of krypton in vacuum (1960)
- length of path travelled by light in 1/299792458 seconds
• Subdivsions was invented (cm, mm,…etc)
• Similarly other measures were invented
• SI units ( meter, kg, seconds,….etc) : systems international units
• Imperial system of units ( miles, yards, inch, feet, slug,…etc)
• Still used : particularly in Britain and America.
• Trend to ban imperial system of units internationally.
• However: one can convert from one system to another.
 Measurement system applications
• Applications can be classified into three major areas:

 regulating trade: measure physical quantities: length, volume, mass,..etc.

 Applications in monitoring functions

- to take actions ( e.g. monitor Temp in greenhouses: windows on/off)
- in chemical process: reactions at certain temp & pressure.

 As a part of automatic feedback system

- e.g. Temperature control system
-Quality of control depends on characteristics of measuring instrument
-The accuracy and resolution by which output is controlled can never be better than the
accuracy and resolution of measuring instrument used!
 Elements of measurement system

Sensor: e.g. thermocouple, strain gauge / usually linear/ primary or complete

(thermometer)

VCE: convenience, e.g. R>>V (strain gauge/bridge)

SPE: improve quality, e.g. op.amp for thermocouples (mV)
Transmission: for convenience or accessibility
Signal can be displayed or fedback to automatic control system
Selection of measuring instrument
 Specifications/characteristics: accuracy – resolution –sensitivity ..etc
 Environmental conditions: eliminate use OR protection (but might reduce
dynamic response (e.g,measuring temperature) – might disturb the instrument
(e,g, pressure sensor at high flow rate!)
 Cost

 Instrument Engineers: compromise/ select from list/ stay updated

 Better characteristics >>> higher the cost
 Consideration to: durability – maintainability – constancy of performance
 (Purchase cost + maintenance cost)/ projected life or period that instrument is
expected to be used! = cost/year >>> unless instrument is reused
Instruments types and performance
characteristics
 Active instruments Vs passive
• Output produced by quantity measured Or NOT ( power source!)

Passive pressure gauge petrol tank level indicator

(less sensitive, longer arm!) increase input power
(simpler –but cheaper ) [thermocouples (T/V)! Radar] (safety/ heating effect!)
 Null-type Vs deflection type
o Deflection type : e.g. pressure gauge.
o Null type : e.g. deadweight pressure gauge ( weights are put on top > datum level
is reached : null point) >>> weights = pressure
o Null type is more accurate >> linearity of spring !
o Deflection is much simpler and widely used

 Analogue Vs Digital
o Analogue varies continuously with measurand ( can be infinite; e.g. pressure
gauge) >>> limited with scale and eye discrimination
o digital instrument varies in discrete steps (e.g. rev counter) > full rotation!
o digital can be interface directly
o Analogue needs ADC >> cost + delay + digitising again !
Null type instrument vs deflection
Revolution counter
 Indicating instruments Vs instruments with signal output
o indicating: visual or audio indication α measurand (e.g. null type &
passive ones) >>> analogue/ digital bathroom scale
o 2nd : Signal whose amplitude α measurand (e.g. voltage signal)

 Smart Vs non-smart
o incorporate microprocessors or not
Static characteristics of instruments
 Accuracy and inaccuracy ( measurement uncertainty)
o measures how close the output reading to correct value
o Inaccuracy: extend to which reading can be wrong – as percentage of full
scale, e.g. ±1% >> can be crucial ( thermometer in room vs factory) –
match process and instrument range !
 Precision/ repeatability/ reproducibility
o precision: degree of freedom from random errors ( confused with
accuracy!)
o Repeatability: closeness to output when input is repeated ( same conditions.
e.g. instrument, observer, location)
o Reproducibility : repeatability if conditions vary
 Tolerance
o maximum deviation of manufactured component from specified value. e.g.
1000 W resistors with tolerance 5% in power >> 950 to 1050 at random
pick

 Range or span
o minimum and maximum values of quantity the instrument is designed to
measure

 Linearity
o maximum deviation in output from fitted line (% full scale)

 Sensitivity of measurement
o Change in output at a given input change :
o scale deflection/value of measurand producing deflection = slope of fitted
line
 Threshold
o Minimum detectable input (at start). E.g. car speedometer ( 15km/hr)

 Resolution
o Minimum input produces detectable change in output. E.g. if car
speedometer subdivision is 20 km/hr we can estimate changes upto 5km.hr
roughly ( 5km/hr is the resolution)

 Sensitivity to disturbance
o Standard ambient conditions are usually defined (e.g. temperature)
o Measures the magnitude of change in characteristics of instrument due to
condition change
o Zero drift (bias): zero reading is modified. E.g. scale > remove bias. Also
voltmeter due to change in temp >> Volts/ 0C (zero drift coefficient /s > if
other parameters !)
o Sensitivity drift: varies as ambient condition varies

 saturation
o Greater input than allowed
 Hysteresis effect
o Non coincident between loading and unloading. E.g. springs, friction,
LVDT (magnetic hysteresis)
 Dead space
o Range of input over which no change in output (e.g. backlash in gears)
 Dynamic characteristics of
instruments
• Represents behaviour during measurement until steady response.
• Input/output relation in linear time-invariant systems (t>0) is as follows;

are constants.
- For step change in the input, the equation reduces to:
• Zero order instrument:
• all coefficients : a1 , a2,….etc are zeros then:

e.g. potentiometer
• first order instrument:
• all coefficients except a0 , a1are zeros then:
• second order instrument:
• all coefficients except a0 , a1, a2are zeros then:
 calibration
• Instruments gradually diverge ( wear, dirt, dust, chemicals,…etc)
• Varies with type of instrument, frequency of use, severity of conditions
• Calibrated against standard instrument (usually kept for this purpose)..
Over whole measuring range.
• Null-type with high accuracy is commonly used (less operator interaction)
• Adjustment, scaling factor, or repair/scrap
• Calibration instrument must be environmentally controlled/protection >>
but not overspecified (cost!) >> air vs heat or cold (British Standard
Society)
• Quality control : ISO 9000 >> training
• Working standards Vs secondary reference standards
SRS issues certificates:
Identification – calibration results – measurement uncertainty – limitations of
the instrument - Date of calibration – authorizing body,
• Calibration records:
- Measurement limits ( cost Vs requirement)
- Measurement conditions
- Instruments requiring calibration
- Define standard instruments and procedure of calibration
- Description of instrument/calibration frequency/results
 Quiz.1
(30-03-2010): 5 mins
• Applications of instrumentation can be
classified into three major areas. Define those
areas and give one example for each area?
 Home Work.1
(due:30/03 @ 8:00 am)
1. Explain what is meant by: active instruments & passive
instruments. Give examples of each and discuss the relative
merits of these two classes of instruments.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of null and
deflection types of measuring instrument.
3. What are null types of instrument mainly used for and why?
4. Briefly define and explain all the static characteristics of
measuring instruments.
5. Explain the difference between accuracy and precision in an
instrument.
6. Define sensitivity drift and zero drift. What factors can cause
sensitivity drift and zero drift in instrument characteristics?
Errors during measurement

Chapter.3
 Introduction
• Errors during measurement > not associated with noise
• Aims at reducing errors or quantify them
• Problem arises from cumulative reading > overall magnitude of error
• Two types of errors : systematic & Random
• Systematic error: in output reading consistently on one side ( all positive or
all negative). Due to:
- Disturbance during measurement
- Environmental changes (modifying inputs)
- bent of needle
- Uncalibrated instrument , drift in instrument characteristics
- Cabling practice
 Introduction
• Random error: perturbations on either sides by random and unpredictable
effects( equal weights for positive and negative deviations). Due to:
- Wrong interpretation (e.g. interpolation)
- Electrical noise
• Statically quantified, and improved by averaging
• Quantification is based on probability of confidence ( e.g. 99%)
• There is a chance of repeating the error! E.g. wrong reading
 Sources of systematic error
• System disturbance due to measurement:
- By the act of measurement : e.g. thermometer in hot water or plate to
measure pressure in a pipe
- Improved by reconsidering the design of the instrument
• Measurement in electrical circuits:
- Consider an example of voltage measured with voltmeter
RAB should be large : ideally infinity…>>> but this presents other constrains !!
e.g. moving coil voltmeter
• Errors due to environmental inputs:
- Characteristics are specified initially
- E.g. closed box with something inside to know ! ( real input, environmental
input or a mixture of the two)
- Therefore environmental input must be measured first!

• Errors due to connecting leads:

- Taking account of the resistance of measuring leads
- E.g. resistance thermometer with copper leads ( resistance + temperature
coefficient)
- Also subjectivity to electrical or magnetic field > noise! > careful routing
 Reduction of systematic errors
• Careful instrument design might help……..E.g. strain gauge >> use
material with very low temperature coefficient!!
• Method of opposing input > to cancel the effect >> e.g. compensating
resistance with negative temperature coefficient to that of coil
• High gain feedback

For high gain

- Therefore : one environmental input Df

- easier to make feedback less sensitive
- But must consider the stability of the system !!
• Calibration
- Increase the frequency of recalibration

• Manual correction of output reading

- By measurement technician in the output reading

• Intelligent instruments
- extra sensors are contained to measure the environmental inputs and
compensate the output accordingly.
- e.g. strain gauge with temperature sensor > programmed

 Datasheets are sometimes supplied by the manufacturer to quantify the

systematic errors
 Random errors
• Using averaging and statistical analysis
• Mean and Median values:

Smaller spread > more confidence

Mean approaches median as

measurement increases
• Standard deviation and Variance:
- Better estimation of results distribution from mean ( not smallest and
highest)
- Deviation error of each measurement: di
- Variance:

- Standard deviation :
 Graphical data analysis technique:
frequency distribution
• Histogram and histogram of deviations
 Graphical data analysis technique:
frequency distribution
Frequency distribution curve of deviation:
• Frequency of occurrence of each deviation value Vs magnitude of deviation
• Asymmetry between curves at zero deviation
• Normalizing magnitude so the area under curve is unity >>>> probability curve
• D: probability density function
Zero if entirely random >>> if non zero: could be bias (systematic >> removed)
• Measurement containing only random errors conform to distribution (Gaussian)

• the frequency of small deviations from the mean value is much greater than
the frequency of large deviations.

- Normal distribution or Bell-shaped distribution.

- Gaussian curve is formally defined as a normalized frequency distribution that is
symmetrical about the line of zero error and in which the frequency and magnitude of
quantities are related by the expression:

- where m is the mean value of the data set x and the other quantities are as defined before.
- useful for predicting how many measurements lie within some particular defined range.

- If D = x – m >> Gaussian curve known as the error frequency distribution curve

- The shape of a Gaussian curve is strongly influenced by the value of σ, with the width
of the curve decreasing as σ becomes smaller. >>> deviation is smaller too
- If the standard deviation is used as a unit of error, the Gaussian curve can be used
to determine the probability that the deviation in any particular measurement in a
Gaussian data set is greater than a certain value.

- the probability that the error lies in a band between error levels D1 and D2 can be expressed as:

standard deviation of one and a mean of zero. >>>>> Standard Gaussian curve Z instead of D
Standard Gaussian tables:
Standard error of the mean:
- some error remains between the mean value of a set of measurements and the true
value
- true value if the number of measurements is infinite
- The error between the mean of a finite data set and the true measurement value (mean
of the infinite data set) is defined as the standard error of the mean, This is calculated
as:
Estimation of random error in a single measurement

- it is not practical to take repeated measurements and find the average value
- for 95% confidence the maximum likely error in a single measurement can be
expressed as:
Distribution of manufacturing tolerances

- manufacturing processes are subject to random variations……known as tolerances

- Gaussian distribution, and the previous analysis of random measurement errors can be applied

20.2 0.1 -0.1

Goodness of fit to a Gaussian distribution
- deviations to a Gaussian distribution >> degree to which a set of data fits a Gauss. distribution
- test can be carried out in one of three ways:
1. simple test: plotting histogram …….. Judgement of symmetry about centre line
2. Using a normal probability plot: dividing the data values into a number of ranges and plotting
the cumulative probability of summed data frequencies against the data values on special graph
paper. This line should be a straight line if the data distribution is Gaussian.
3. Chi-squared test
Caulcott (1973)
Rogue data points
- measurements with a very large error sometimes occur at random and unpredictable times
-much larger than could reasonably be attributed to the expected random variations
- e.g. sudden transient voltage surges on the mains power supply and incorrect recording of data
(e.g. writing down 146.1 when the actual measured value was 164.1)
- discard these rogue measurements, and a threshold level of a ±3σ…. Rare!

Special case when the number of measurements is small

the mean of only a small number of measurements may deviate significantly from the true
measurement value…………………… t-student …………Miller (1990)
Aggregation of measurement system errors

- Errors in measurement systems often arise from two or more different sources,
-single measurement component may have both systematic and random errors and,
-secondly, a measurement system may consist of several measurement components that each have
separate errors.
Combined effect of systematic and random errors

independent and so are unlikely to both be at their maximum or minimum value at the same time.
Aggregation of errors from separate measurement system components
- several separate components, each of which is subject to errors.
- how to combine together
- addition, subtraction, multiplication and division may be performed

Error in a sum
two outputs y and z

only valid provided that the measurements are uncorrelated (i.e. each measurement is entirely
independent of the others).

550
Error in a difference

two outputs y and z of separate measurement systems are to be subtracted

Error in a product

If the outputs y and z of two measurement system components are multiplied together,

aybz are negligible compared with other terms

maximum error in the product

unlikely that the errors in y and z will both be at the maximum or minimum value at the same time.

maximum error e in the product P,

e is calculated in terms of the fractional errors in y and z (as opposed to the absolute error values
used in calculating additive errors)
Error in a quotient
Total error when combining multiple measurements
- Several measurements that are combined together in a way that involves more than one type
of arithmetic operation.
- For example, the density of a rectangular-sided solid block of material can be calculated from
measurements of its mass divided by the product of measurements of its length, height and width.
- The errors involved in each stage of arithmetic are cumulative,
Measurement noise and
signal processing

Chapter.5
 Sources of measurement noise
further errors when electrical signals from measurement sensors and transducers are
corrupted by induced noise.
-within the measurement circuit itself and also during the transmission of measurement
signals to remote points
- reduce noise and signal processing - Noise voltages can exist either in serial mode
or common mode forms.
- Serial mode noise voltages act in series with the output voltage from a measurement
sensor or transducer > can cause significant errors in the output measurement signal.
- The extent to which series mode noise corrupts measurement signals

where Vs is the mean voltage level of the signal and Vn is the mean voltage level of the
noise. For a.c. noise voltages, the root-mean squared value is used as the mean.
- Noise sources can be both external and internal to the measurement system.
 External : proximity to mains-powered equipment and cables/ proximity to
fluorescent lighting/ proximity to equipment operating at audio and radio
frequencies/switching of nearby d.c. and a.c. circuits and corona discharge.
Internal: thermoelectric potentials, shot noise and potentials due to electrochemical
action
Inductive coupling
- The primary mechanism - If signal-carrying cables are close to such external
cables or equipment, a significant mutual inductance M can exist between them
- Can generate a series mode noise voltage of several millivolts

Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling

-between the signal wires in a measurement circuit and a nearby mains-carrying
conductor. - between each signal wire and the mains conductor…. wires and earth
-series mode noise voltage Vn is zero if the coupling capacitances are perfectly
balanced, i.e. if C1 = C2 and C3 = C4.
- exact balance is unlikely in practice, >> wires are not perfectly straight >> usually
exists.
Noise due to multiple earths
- As far as possible, measurement signal circuits are isolated from earth.>>
- leakage paths often exist (wires and earth at both source & load)
- does not cause a problem as long as the earth potential at both ends is the same.
- other machinery and equipment carrying large currents is connected to the same earth
plane.
- cause the potential to vary between different points on the earth plane.
- cause a series mode noise voltage in the measurement circuit.>> multiple earth

Noise in the form of voltage transients

- When motors and other electrical equipment (a.c. and d.c.) are switched on and off,
- large changes of power consumption suddenly occur in the electricity supply system.
- This can cause voltage transients (‘spikes’) in measurement circuits connected to the
same power supply.
- Such noise voltages are of large magnitude but short time duration.
- Corona discharge can also cause voltage transients on the mains power supply. This
occurs when the air in the vicinity of high voltage d.c. circuits becomes ionized and
discharges to earth at random times.
Thermoelectric potentials
- Whenever metals of two different types are connected together, a thermoelectric
potential (sometimes called a thermal e.m.f.) is generated according to the temperature
of the joint.
- This is known as the thermoelectric effect (principle of thermocouples)
- only a few millivolts ( large effect when output is also low).
- e.g. to monitor the output of several thermocouples measuring the temperatures at
different points in a process control system.>> automatically switching the output of
each thermocouple to the measuring instrument in turn.
- Nickel–iron reed-relays with copper connecting leads> 40 μV/°C >80 μV for
difference of 2°C
- attempt to keep temperature at same level
-also, e.g. current-measuring system .. …. wire-wound resistance of value 100 ohms /
20 μA was applied to the resistance and a voltage of 2.20mV was measured / indicates a
current value of 22 μA/ was due to difference in temperature between the two ends of
the resistor of 2°C ( 10%)
-Shot noise
- Shot noise occurs in transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices.
-It consists of random fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers across junctions within such
devices.
-Electrochemical potentials
- These are potentials that arise within measurement systems due to electrochemical action.
- Poorly soldered joints are a common source.
 Techniques for reducing measurement noise
Location and design of signal wires

- mutual inductance and capacitance between signal wires and other cables are inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the wires and the cable. >> separation
- minimum = 0.3 and preferably 1m
- twisted pairs : identical voltage induced in them (V1+V2).

Earthing

- multiple earths can be avoided by good earthing practices.

- keeping earths for signal wires and earths for high-current equipment separate, in practice:
1.Power earth: provides a path for fault currents due to power faults.
2.Logic earth: provides a common line for all logic circuit potentials.
3.Analogue earth (ground): provides a common reference for all analogue signals.
4.Safety earth: connected to all metal parts of equipment to protect personnel should power lines
come into contact with metal enclosures.
Shielding

- enclosing the signal wires in an earthed, metal shield that is itself isolated electrically
from the signal wires.
- can eliminate capacitive noise completely
- additionally signal wires can be pair twisted
 Introduction to signal processing

- Signal processing is concerned with improving the quality of the reading or signal at
the output of a measurement system >> attenuate noise
- includes; signal filtering, signal amplification, signal attenuation, signal linearization
and bias removal
- DSP is better than analogue techniques except for analogue transducers ( conversion
errors!)

Analogue signal filtering

- Signal filtering consists of processing a signal to remove a certain band of frequencies

- low-pass filters, high-pass filters, band-pass filters and band-stop filters
- can be carried out by either analogue or digital methods.
- soil sieving analogy
a signal whose frequency spectrum is such that all
frequency components in the frequency range from
zero to infinity have equal magnitude.
- Actual filtering: >>> compromise between performance, complexity and cost.
-Selection is based on the frequency of measured signal or frequency of noise signal (BSF)
Passive analogue filters
- circuits that consist only of resistors and capacitors : tone controls in radio receivers
- it is normal to use a network of impedances (C &L) >>> zero resistance ( difficult for inductors)
- equal to the load impedance
Active analogue filters:
-obtaining resistance-less inductors and achieving proper matching ( passive)
-L: bulky and relatively expensive
-electronic amplifier (R+C)
- Second order filters, because the input–output relationship >> 2nd order diff. eq.
 Other analogue signal processing operations

Signal amplification Instrumentation amplifier Differential amplification

Bias (zero drift) removal Signal integration

Signal linearization

Voltage follower Voltage comparator Lock-in amplifier

Signal addition Signal multiplication ADC & DAC

Operational amplifiers >>>> Electronics.2 (4th year)

Digital signal processing

 Quiz.2
• A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has the following
deflection/load characteristic.

30 60 90

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 40°C and the following deflection/

load characteristic is measured.

6 39 72 105

1) Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift

2) Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient temperature.