Cell structure and

function
 All organisms are made of cells

The most basic unit of any organism is the cell, the smallest
unit of life that can function independently and perform all
the necessary functions of life, including reproducing itself.
All living organisms are made up of one or more cells, and all
cells arise from other, preexisting cells.

The term “cell” was first used

in the mid-1600s by Robert
Hooke.
 Cells
Cell Basic unit of life
Unicellular ( yeast, bacteria,
protozoan)
Living
Organisms
Multicellular ( higher plants, animals
etc)
The Cell theory
The observations of early microscopists led to the development of the cell
theory. First proposed by M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann in
1839, the cell theory states that:
 The cell is the smallest independent unit of life.
 The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms: all living things are
made of one or more cells.
 Cells arise from other cells by division. They cannot arise
spontaneously.
Definition of Cell

Cell is the unit of biological activity delimited by a semi

permeable membrane and capable of self reproduction in a
medium free from other living systems

Cell size

Cells are extremely small, can be seen properly only when

magnified and viewed through the lenses of a microscope. Cell
dimensions are expressed in micrometers (µm). Cells are in
the size range of about 5-500µm, but most are between 10 to
150µm
 Types of cells
Based on structure:

Prokaryotic cells

Cells

Eukaryotic cells
a) Prokaryotic cells
 Characterized by absence of
nuclear membrane, nucleolus
and most of the well developed
cytoplasmic organelles.
 Considered as the most
primitive type of cells and in
them, nuclear material is
found freely distributed in the
cytoplasm.
 Examples:
Bacteria, Viruses, blue
green algae etc.
b) Eukaryotic Cells

 Characterized by the presence of

definitely organized nucleus with
a nuclear
membrane and nucleolus.
 Presence of well organized
cytoplasmic organelles like
mitochondria,
plastids, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum etc.

Examples:
Higher plants and
animal cells, algae, fungi,
protozoa, etc.
 Difference between animal and plant cells

Structure Animal cells Plant cells

Cell wall Absent Present
Vacuoles Small Large
Plastids Absent Present
Nucleus Positioned to the At the periphery
center
Stored form of Glycogen Starch
food
Lysosome Present Absent
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Based on ultrastructure as seen with the electron microscope, all living cells
can be divided into two groups:
a) Prokaryotic cells (Bacteria, Cyanobacteria etc)
b) Eukaryotic cells (Plant and animal cells, fungi, algae etc.)

How small is small?

  The Prokaryotic cells

 “Prokaryote” literally
means “ Before the
nucleus”; i.e. the genetic
material (DNA) of these
organisms is not enclosed
by a nuclear envelope.

 Group of very small

unicellular organisms like
bacteria

 Cell size : ranges from 0.1

to 10 µm
Fig: A Prokaryotic Cell
Cell Wall
Most of the prokaryotic cells posses a rigid
protective cell wall made of
peptidoglycan.
Function:
1) Surrounds the underlying cell membrane
2) Protects cell membrane and the internal
parts of the cell from adverse changes in
the surrounding environment
3) Prevent bacterial cell from rupturing
when the osmotic pressure inside the
cell is greater than that outside the cell.
 Cell Membrane

• Beneath the cell wall, the cell membrane exists.

• Completely encloses the contents of the cell.
• It controls the passage of all kinds of nutrients & waste .
 Capsule
• is a sticky coat outside the cell wall.
• Function:
i) protects from drying out
ii) protects from digestion by intestinal enzymes
iii) protects from attack by a host’s immune system

Nucleoid
• The nucleoid of a prokaryotic cell contains a single circular piece of DNA and is
located in the cytoplasm.
• DNA is not surrounded by an envelope.
• There are smaller rings of DNA known as plasmids which are also present in the
cytoplasm.
• Plasmids are not connected to the main bacterial chromosome and can replicate
independently of chromosomal RNA.
• Plasmids are of great interest to biologist because:
i) often contain the genes for antibiotic resistance.
ii) can be used to carry genes between bacterial cells in genetic
engineering
Ribosomes

• Function as the site of protein synthesis

Mesosomes

• Inner extension of the cell membrane.

• Cell respiration (The breakdown of food to release energy) occurs
on mesosomes.

Flagella

• Some bacteria are motile, they can swim. They have thin fibers
called flagella.
• Flagella are cork-screw shaped and rotate, propelling the
bacteria in different directions.
 Cytoplasm

• The internal matrix of the cell contained inside the plasma

membrane.
• Cytoplasm is thick, aqueous, semi-transparent.
• Cytoplasm is about 80% water and contains proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, inorganic ions.
Six facts about prokaryotic cells

• Bacteria are an example of prokaryotic cells.

• Prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane-bound
nucleus, their DNA is circular and naked.
• Prokaryotic cells are very small (an average
bacterial cell is around 8 micrometres long).
• These cells do not have any membrane-bound
organelles such as mitochondria.
• Prokaryotic cells may have a cell wall but, it is not
made of cellulose .
• These cells may contain extra DNA in structures
called plasmids.
 The Eukaryotic cells

 The term Eukaryote

means “True Nucleus”;
Because the DNA of
eukaryotic cells is
confined to a definite
area inside the cell
enclosed by a nuclear
envelope.

 Cell Size : Ranges

from 10-100 µm
 Nucleus
• Largest and the most prominent
organelle in the cell
• Nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear
envelope. This is a double membrane
formed by lipid bilayers.
• Nucleus is about 10µm in diameter.
• Usually DNA is spread throughout
the nucleus as chromatin.
• In a dividing cell, DNA is highly
condensed into thread-like structures
called chromosomes.

• Nucleoli are darkly stained

spherical structures in the nucleus.
There are one or more nucleoli in the
nucleus. Nucleoli produce ribosomes.

• Nuclear pores in the membrane

allow the nucleus to communicate
with the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells,
there is an extensive network of flattened
membranous sacs called the Endoplasmic
Reticulum or ER.
• The ER network is continuous with the
nuclear envelope.
• There are two types of ER in the
eukaryotic cells:
a) Rough ER
b) Smooth ER
a) Rough ER: has numerous ribosomes
bound to it and thus gives it a grainy
appearance and its name rough ER.
The main function of rough ER is to
store and transport the proteins made on
the ribosomes.
b) Smooth ER: has no ribosomes attached to
it and tend to occur in small areas that
are not continuous with the nuclear
envelope.
Smooth ER are the site of steroid
(Many hormones are steroids) production. Fig: Endoplasmic reticulum
 Protein Transport

Newly made proteins

accumulate in the ER lumen.
Small vesicles containing
newly synthesized proteins
pinch off from the ends of
rough ER and either fuse with
the golgi complex or pass
directly to the cell membrane

Fig: Protein Transport. 1 Nucleus 2 Nuclear pore 3 Rough endoplasmic

reticulum (RER) 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) 5 Ribosome on the
rough ER 6 Proteins that are transported 7 Transport vesicle 8 Golgi
complex 9 Cis face of the Golgi complex 10 Trans face of the Golgi
complex 11 Cisternae of the Golgi complex
 Ribosomes
• attached to the outer surface of the rough ER or are also found
free in the cytoplasm.
• about 20 nm in diameter.
• are the sites of protein synthesis

The Golgi Complex

• The golgi complex consists of

four to six flattened sacs (like ER)
that are stacked on each other
like a pile of dishes with
expanded areas at their ends.
• These expanded areas detach
from the cisternae to form
secretory vesicles that can export
substances from the cell as well
as transporting them within it.

Fig: Golgi complex

Function of Golgi Complex:
• Appears to be involved with
the synthesis, modification
of proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
• Receives newly synthesized
proteins and lipids from the
ER and then sorts, packages
and delivers them by
secretory vesicles.
 Mitochondria

• Usually spherical or elongated in

shape. They are 0.5 – 1.5µm wide and
3-10µm long.
• Mitochondria consists of a double
membrane.
• Outer membrane is smooth.
•Inner membrane is arranged in a
series of folds called cristae. The
center of the mitochondria is a semi
fluid substance called the matrix.
• Some enzymes of the cellular
respiration are located on the cristae.
• Function:
Make ATP via aerobic
respiration. ATP is a molecule that
diffuses around the cell and provides
instant chemical energy to the
processes that require it. Therefore,
Mitochondria are frequently called
the “powerhouses of the cell”.
 Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are called the

“suicide bags” .
• are small vesicles (0.2-0.5µm in
diameter) that contain a mixture
of powerful lytic (digestive or
breaking) enzymes.
• If the enzymes in the
lysosomes leak out, they can
destroy the whole cell.
• Function:
i) to supply enzymes to
destroy the old organelles.
ii) to digest material
taken into the cell.
 Chloroplasts

• Chloroplasts are a group of plant

cell organelles also known as plastids
• They are surrounded by a double
membrane and contain both the
pigment chlorophyll and the enzymes
required for the photosynthesis.
• There are several types of plastids:
i) Chromoplasts: Found in
the petals and fruits.
ii) Amyloplasts: found in
seeds and in the tubers such as
potatoes.
 Vacuoles

• A large fluid filled cavity bounded by a

single membrane called the Tonoplast.
• In mature cells, vacuoles occupy over
80% of the cell volume and is filled with
a fluid called cell sap. The sap consists
of a complex mixture of sugars, salts,
pigments and waste products in water.
• Function:
i) The vacuoles tends to absorb
water and therefore swells, pushing the
cytoplasm against the cell wall.
ii) Store foods such as sugars
and mineral salts.
iii) Store pigments that give
color to plants structures such as petals
of flowers.
iv) accumulate waste products
or by products of metabolism.
 Cell membrane
• is a double layer phospholipid molecules.
• is a boundary between the cell and its
environment.
• play a vital role in controlling the materials
pass in or out of the cell
Cell wall
• Plant cell wall consists of many
cellulose fibers.
• Function:
i) provides rigidity and strength
to the cell. It should be rigid enough to
resist expansion to allow the cell to
become turgid.
ii) allows communication between
cells. Cytoplasmic connections
(plasmodesmata) runs through the cell
wall.
iii) gives cell a particular shape.
Seems eukaryotes are busy like hell..
 Six facts about eukaryotic cells
• Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus.
• Animal cells and plant cells are eukaryotic.
• Eukaryotic cells have many organelles that perform
functions within the cell.
• Some organelles are big enough to be seen with a
light microscope.
• An electron microscope is needed to see all
organelles in detail.
• Plant and animal cells have many organelles in
common, but only plant cells have cell walls,
chloroplasts and permanent vacuoles.
 Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
1.Typical Bacteria, Fungi, plant and animal cells
organisms Cyanobacteria
2.Typical size ~ 1-10 µm ~ 10-100µm
3. Nucleus No nuclear membrane real nucleus with double
or nucleoli membrane
4. DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes)
with histone proteins.
5. Membrane absent Present; (examples include
bounded mitochondria, chloroplasts etc.)
organelles
6. Ribosomes Smaller (70s) Larger (80s)

7. Chromosome Single circular Multiple linear chromosomes

(DNA) chromosome, lacks with histones
arrangement histones

8. Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis