1.

The Earth has a

gravitational field that exerts
a force on objects both in
and around it
 Gravity and Weight on
Other Planets
• Mass, Weight and Gravity

F = m.g
• Weight is a measurement of the force on an object
caused by gravity trying to pull the object down.
• Weight is a Vector quantity measured in Newtons.
• Gravity is an attractive force.
• Mass is the amount of matter contained inside an
object
More Information and an activity on Weight Force
 Weight
• Weight is a measurement of the force on a object
caused by gravity trying to pull the object down.
• Mars has less gravity than Earth. Therefore if you were
on Mars you'd weigh less because the force of gravity
wouldn't be as strong as it is here on Earth.

• Does this mean you would suddenly be thinner on

Mars?
No.
You would have the same amount of mass as you do
on Earth.
(Mass is the amount of stuff inside an object.)
 Gravity
• Gravity is an attractive force. This doesn't mean it's
pretty. What "attractive" means is that an object's
gravity pulls other objects toward it.
• The Earth's gravity naturally pulls us, and everything
else, toward the centre of the planet, which keeps us
from drifting off into space.
• The Earth isn't the only thing that has gravity. In fact,
every single object in the universe has gravity. The
tables you're sitting at have gravity. They are pulling
you towards them. You have gravity, and you are
pulling the tables towards you. We can't see or feel
these things happening because people and tables
have a such a small mass that the effects of gravity
cannot be seen.
 Mass
• Mass is the amount of stuff contained inside an object.
It takes a lot of mass to make a lot of gravity.
• The Earth has a lot of mass, so it has a lot of gravity.
The moon's gravity is about 1/6 the amount of the
Earth's because the moon has less mass than the
Earth.
• You've probably seen video footage of astronauts
walking on the moon. They seem to float between each
step. Remember that the moon has about 1/6 the
amount of gravity that the Earth has?
• Well, if you went to the moon, you'd weigh less than
you do here on Earth. On the moon your mass would
be the same -- there is no less of you on the moon. But
your weight is different because the moon's gravity is
different.
 Calculating Gravity
• Sir Isaac Newton was the man that brought the
heavens down to Earth.
• Remember Newton’s 3rd Law
“Every action has an equal and opposite reaction”
• Therefore the force of gravity works in both ways. That
is, you are pulled down by gravity, but, at the same
time you are pulling the earth up towards you.
• So from Newton’s work it is possible to calculate the
Force of Gravity between two objects.

m1m2
Fgravity G 2
r
 The Law of Universal
Gravitation
m1m2 Fg=Force in Newtons

Fgravity G 2 G = Gravitational Constant

r
m1= mass of object 1 in kg

m2 = mass of object 2 in kg

r = radius or distance
between the centre of
the two objects.
 Calculating the Force
between two objects.
Problem
Given the following data determine the magnitude of the
gravitational attraction between:
Answers
a) The Earth and the Moon
a) 1.98 x 1020N
b) The Earth and the Sun
b)3.52 x 1022N
Mass of Earth = 5.97 x 1024kg So even though the Sun
Mass of the Moon = 7.35 x 1022kg is further away the
Mass of the Sun = 1.99 x 1030kg Force of attraction is
Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 108m greater than the moon.
Average Earth-Sun distance = 1.50 x 1011m
N.B. The Earth Sun Distance is also a unit of measure for space.
1 AU (Astronomical Unit) = 1.50 x 1011m
2 AU therefore would be 2 x 1.50 x 1011m = 3.0 x 1011m
 Calculating Gravity on other
Planets.
• Remember Weight is dependent upon the gravity
of a planet.
• We can calculate the Gravity on a planet if we
know the planet’s Mass in kg and it’s mean
radius in m.
• We can use the following formula to calculate it:
m planet
Gravity planet  G
rplanet
Remember the Gravitational constant = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2
 Calculating it for Earth
m planet
Gravity planet  G
r 2 planet
• Gravity = 6.67x10-11x 5.98x1024
(6.37x106)2

= 9.83 m/s2

Now it is your turn to calculate it for each planet in our solar system.
 Gravity on the Planets
Planet Mass(kg) Mean Radius Acceleration due
(m) to Gravity (m/s/s)
Earth 5.98 x1024 6.37 x106 9.8
The Moon 7.36 x1022 1.74 x106 1.6
Mars 6.42 x1023 3.37 x106 3.7
Jupiter 1.90 x1027 6.99 x107 24.8
Pluto 1.4 x1022 1.5 x106 0.7
Mercury 3.18 x1023 2.43 x106
Venus 4.88 x1024 6.06 x106
Saturn 5.68 x1026 5.85 x107
Uranus 8.68 x1025 2.33 x109
Neptune 1.03 x1026 2.21 x107
Your Weight on other planets
1. Estimate your mass.
2. Record your mass in the chart below. Your
mass is your weight on Earth.
3. Multiply your mass times the gravity in each
row to figure out your weight at each location.
4. Where do you weigh the most? Where do you
weigh the least?
• To calculate your weight: mass x gravity =
weight
 Location Mass Gravity Weight

Earth =9.8

Earth's moon =0.17 x 9.8

Venus =0.90x9.8

Mars =0.38x9.8

Mercury =0.38x9.8

Jupiter =2.36x9.8

Saturn =0.92x9.8

Uranus =0.89x9.8

Neptune =1.13x9.8

Pluto =0.07x9.8
 Let’s Investigate
Acceleration
due to Gravity
• First Hand Investigation
– Determine a value for gravity using
pendulum motion.

Handout
 Gravity and Potential Energy
• When we raise something off the ground we are giving it
energy because if we drop it then it will fall to the ground.
• Therefore to raise the item we have to do work to raise it off
the ground. Essentially we are working against gravity to lift
the object.
• We must remember however that we are only observing
gravity on the surface of the earth.
• What about when we are a long way from Earth? Does it
affect us the same?
I can hardly feel
Gee gravity feels
gravity out here
Earth strong here
 Gravitational Fields
• We can represent
the gravity around
an object with field
lines.
• The field lines go in
towards the centre
of mass.
• The field on the
surface of the Earth
is straight down.
• E.g. in a room
 Gravity and Work
• As we have said to move something in a
gravitational field we must do work or use
Energy.
Therefore our idea of
PE=mgh
is good but only when we are close to Earth.

How could we define it for the entire Universe?

 Gravity is Inversely
Proportional
• That means as an
object moves away 1
from a large object
the force of gravity
Gravity  2
reduces. The faster radius
we can go.
 Remember Newton’s
Gravitational Force
W  Fs m1m2
s  radius  r Fgravity G 2
r
W  F r

m1m2
W  F r  G 2 r
r
m1m2
E potential  G
r Notice the negative sign, it will
be explained in the next
couple of slides.
 Gravitational Potential
Energy and Work Done.
The gravitational potential energy of an object at some point within a
gravitational field is equivalent to the work done in moving the object from
an infinite distance to that point.
It can be shown mathematically that the gravitational energy, Ep , of an
object with mass, m1 , a distance, r , from the centre of a planet of mass,
m2 , is given by:

GPE Information from Zona Land

 Total Energy
• Total Energy =
Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy

Therefore drawing graphs of both Ep and

Ek would look like:
 Graph of Gravitational
Potential Energy
Earth

r
+

Ep 0
d

-
Graph of Kinetic Energy
Earth

r
+

Ek 0
d

-
 GPE

Ep at suface < Ep at x < Ep at

Now Gravity is essentially zero at infinity so at x

Ep is less so it must be a negative. Hence the
negative sign in the formula.
 Example Question
Question: A spacecraft is moved to a higher orbit. Use
the concept of energy to explain why it slows down.

Answer:
The rocket moves away from
the planet, so:
Ep increases as the rocket
moves further away
Ek therefore decreases
= loss of kinetic energy means
rocket would slow down.
 Another Problem
• Using the following data determine the
Gravitational Potential Energy of:
a) The moon within the Earth’s gravitational field
b) The Earth within the Sun’s gravitational field

Mass of Earth = 5.97 x 1024kg Answers

Mass of the Moon = 7.35 x 1022kg
Mass of the Sun = 1.99 x 10 kg
30 a) -7.62 x 10 28
Joules
Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 108m b) -5.28 x 1033 Joules
Average Earth-Sun distance = 1.50 x 1011m
 The planets orbit at
different speeds.
• We can relate this to all the orbits of the
planets around the sun.
• The closer the planet is to the Sun the
faster its orbit, the greater its Kinetic
Energy.
• The further away the slower the Kinetic
Energy the greater the Potential Energy.
How fast do the planets orbit?
Planet Days to Orbit the Sun (0
d.p.)
Mercury 88
Venus 225
Earth 365
Mars 687
Jupiter 4333
Saturn 10759
Uranus 30685
Neptune 60190
Orbits of the inner planets
 2. Many factors have to be
taken into account to achieve
a successful rocket launch,
maintain a stable orbit and
return to earth.
 Objects fall towards earth.
• At a given location on
the earth and in the
absence of air
resistance, all objects
fall with the same
uniform acceleration.
Thus, two objects of
different sizes and
weights, dropped from
the same height, will
hit the ground at the
same time.
Information from http://thinkquest.org
 Projectiles
• An object is controlled
by two independent
motions. So an object
projected horizontally
will reach the ground
in the same time as an
object dropped
vertically. No matter
how large the
horizontal velocity is,
the downward pull of
gravity is always the
same.
Information from http://thinkquest.org
 Before Galileo
• This illustration
reflects the general
opinion before Galileo
which followed largely
Aristotelian lines but
incorporating a later
theory of "impetus" --
which maintained that
an object shot from a
cannon, for example,
followed a straight line
until it "lost its
impetus," at which
point it fell abruptly to
the ground.
 Galileo -Projectiles
follow a curved path.
• Later it was realized that projectiles actually follow a curved path.
Yet no one knew what that path was, until Galileo. There was yet
another brilliant insight that led Galileo to his most astounding
conclusion about projectile motion. First of all, he reasoned that a
projectile is not only influenced by one motion, but by two. The
motion that acts vertically is the force of gravity, and this pulls an
object towards the earth at 9.8 meters per second. But while
gravity is pulling the object down, the projectile is also moving
forward, horizontally at the same time. And this horizontal motion
is uniform and constant according to Galileo's principle of inertia.
 HSC Physics looks at three
types of Projectiles.
1. A projectile fired from the ground at a certain
angle.
2. A projectile fired from a height horizontally.
3. A projectile fired at an angle from a height.

We will only look at projectiles in two dimensions

horizontally and vertically.

y
x

The following slides show what each looks like.

Horizontally from a height
Horizontally from a height
At an angle from a height

u
Solving Problems for
Projectile Motion

Projectile Motion
-Handout
 Projectiles – First Hand
• Projectiles in the Sporting Arena.
- Throwing a ball

• Computer Simulation
- Projectile Fired from the ground
Applet – Projectile Motion
 Projectile Motion Problems
• Horizontal Problem
– A coin is projected across a horizontal table with a constant
speed of 1.5m/s. It leaves the edge of the table and follows
a parabolic path to the ground 1.0m below.
a) How long does it take to hit the ground?
b) What is the vertical velocity just before the coin hits the
ground?
c) Calculate the velocity just before it hits the floor?
d) How far away from the edge of the table does the coin hit
the floor?

1.5m/s
 Solution
A) All motion is in the same direction so
we do not need to worry about vectors.
Uv=0m/s, a=9.8, sv=1.0m
Sv= uvt + ½ at2
1 = 0 + ½ (9.8)t2
t = 0.45 sec
So, the time of flight = 0.45 seconds
 Solution
b) sv=1.0m, uv = 0, a = 9.8m/s2
Vv2 = uv2 + 2as
Vv2 = 0 + 2 x 9.8 x 1
Vv = 4.45 m/s

c) Velocity is Resultant of horizontal and vertical final

velocity.
A2 = b2 + c2 Angle = tan-1(1.5/4.45)
1.5 m/s = 18.7 degrees
A2 = (1.5)2 + (4.45)2

4.45m/s A = 4.67m/s

Resultant Velocity = 4.67m/s at 18.7 degrees

 Solution
d) Horizontal Displacement
Uh = 1.5m/s, t=0.45s Important
Sh = Uh x t Acceleration acts only
on the vertical axis.
= 1.5 x 0.45s
= 0.675metres
Therefore it does not
affect any motion in the
1.5m/s horizontal axis.
 Homework
Answer the following questions:
1. A spacecraft is rising from the moon with a velocity
of 20m/s when a bolt falls off. If the bolt takes 50.0s
to reach the ground how high was the spacecraft?
2. On the planet Mars an astronaut throws a ball up at
10m/s.
a) How high does it go?
b) How long does it take to reach this height?
c) What is the time of flight?
d) With what speed does it hit the ground?
3. During a visit to the Moon, an astronaut throws a
rock vertically and it reaches a height of 20m.
a) With what speed was it thrown?
b) How long did it take to reach 20m?
c) At what times was the ball at 10m?
 PROJECTILE MOTION LAB

• PURPOSE: SCORING:
To study projectile motion under a "real" Hit on 1st try = 10 points
situation. Hit on 2nd try = 7 points
Hit on 3rd try = 3 points
• PROCEDURE:
Calibrate your ramp. Determine the velocity of
the ball as it leaves the ramp when rolled
from different starting points along the ramp.
Use the projectile motion of the ball onto the
table top for your calculations. You should
calibrate many points, at least every 2 cm or
even every cm. Note the letter of your ramp.
After the ramp has been calibrated, it will be
placed on a platform at a given height, H,
and a cup will be placed on the floor at a
given distance from the ramp, R. Your goal is
to release the ball from the point your group
decides along the ramp so that it will gain
enough speed to just hit the cup.
 Newton’s Law of
Universal Gravitation
• In simplistic terms, what Newton said was that
an object attracts every other object in the
universe. The two factors that determine the
force of the attraction are:
- the mass of each of the two objects
- the distances between their centres of mass.
• In mathematical terms, this is:
Click on
Equation
For more
information
 Universal Gravitation

• F = force of attraction between objects

• G = universal gravitational constant (which is
equal to 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2)
• m1 = mass of object 1
• m2 = mass of object 2
• d = distance between their centres of mass
 The observed solar system at the time of Newton

Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn

(all except Earth are named

after Roman gods, because Three outer planets discovered later…
astrology was practiced in Uranus (1781, Wm Herschel)
ancient Rome) Neptune (1846 Adams; LeVerrier)
Pluto (1930, Tombaugh)
 Isaac Newton

Newton solved the premier scientific problem of

his time --- to explain the motion of the planets.

To explain the motion of the planets, Newton

F
developed three ideas: a
1. The laws of motion m
2. The theory of universal gravitation Gm1m2
3. Calculus, a new branch of mathematics F 2
r
“If I have been able to see farther than others it is
because I stood on the shoulders of giants.”
--- Newton’s letter to Robert Hooke,
probably referring to Galileo and Kepler
Uniform Circular Motion
 Centripetal
acceleration

For an object in circular

motion, the centripetal
acceleration is a = v 2/r .
(Christian Huygens)

Example. Determine the string tension if a mass of 5 kg is

whirled around your head on the end of a string of length 1
m with period of revolution 0.5 s.
Answer : 790 N
 Uniform Circular Motion
- Orbit of Satellites
• Forces involved in uniform circular
motion – including satellites
• Kepler’s Laws
• Low Earth and geo-stationary orbits
• Orbital Decay of satellites
 Forces and Uniform
Circular Motion
• Objects do not perform uniform circular motion unless
they are subject to a centripetal force. This is a force
that is always perpendicular to the velocity of the
object. That force causes the moving object to
continually change direction so that it follows a circular
path. The centripetal force is always directed toward
the centre of the circular motion.
• The source of the centripetal force for a range of
circular motions is listed here.  

Circular motion Source of centripetal force

Ball on a string whirled in a circle Tension in the string

Car driving around a corner Friction between the tyres and the road

Satellite orbiting the Earth Gravitational attraction between the Earth

and the satellite
 Three Ideas
• Centripetal Acceleration is the rate
of change of velocity or speed of an
object as it travels in circular motion.
Measured in ms-2
• Centripetal Force is the force that
pulls an object towards the middle of
it’s circular motion. Gravity is the
Centripetal force causing the motion
of the planets.
• Centrifugal Force is the outwards
push felt by an object as it
undergoes circular motion. It is not a
real force though.
•You may feel a force push you outwards when you are on a merry go round. All it is
however is the Inertia of the body, because the motion is always accelerating in a circle.
You want to keep travelling in a straight line but holding on to the pole forces you to stay
on and accelerates you towards the middle of the circle.
 Centripetal Force
• Using the idea of Centripetal Acceleration and
Newton’s Second Law F = m.a we are able to
calculate the Force involved in keeping an
object in uniform circular motion.

2
mv
F = Force Newtons

F
m = mass of object in kg
v = velocity in m/s

r r = radius in m
 Problem
Orbital Speed = 27800km/h
• A 200kg satellite is
orbiting Earth with
a height of 250km.
It’s orbital speed is
27 800km/h.

• Find the Force

acting on it and its
centripetal
acceleration.
Height = Radius Earth =
250km 6380km
 Solution
• Data
2
– M = 200kg mv
– V = 27800km/h
– R = 6380km + 250km F
r
• Calculation

200  77222
Fc 
6630000
So, Fc  1799 N towards the centre of Earth
v2 77222 Fc 1799
ac      9.0ms  2
r 6630000 m 200
 Newton and the Apple

Newton was inquisitive and it was why he

was such a great scientist

Newton observed an apple and

how gravity affected it on Earth.
Some people say it hit him on the
head and all of a sudden he knew
how it worked.

He asked himself:

Did the same gravity go all the way

to the moon?
 Newton and the Moon
• Newton asked himself:
What if the Moon was always falling towards Earth but never actually
got any closer? How could it do this?

The apple when it fell always fell to Earth.

What about if he threw the apple, what path did it take?

A curved path like the projectiles.

What if he threw the apple hard enough?

He thought possibly if he threw it hard enough it would continue to

curve towards Earth but never actually land, in effect it became a
moon.
 Now he could escape Earth
So if he threw the apple hard
enough it would leave
Earth.
Could he throw an apple hard
enough? No

What could he use?

He thought of using a huge
cannon to fire a cannon
ball fast enough that it may
begin to orbit the Earth like
the Moon did.

Applet for Newton’s Mountain Cannon

http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuff/Applets/newt/newtmtn.html
 Kepler’s Laws
Johannes Kepler, working with data painstakingly
collected by Tycho Brahe without the aid of a
telescope, developed three laws which described
the motion of the planets across the sky.

1. The Law of Orbits: All planets move in elliptical

orbits, with the sun at one focus.

2. The Law of Areas: A line that connects a planet to the"By the study of the orbit of Mars,
sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times. we must either arrive at the secrets
of astronomy or forever remain in
ignorance of them."
3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any - Johannes Kepler
planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor
axis of its orbit.
Demonstrations of Kepler’s Laws
Kepler’s First and Second Laws
Kepler’s Third Law More Information
Information from: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kepler.html
 Kepler’s 1st Law
• The Law of Orbits

All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.

The Elliptical shape

of the orbit is due to
the Inverse Square
Law of Gravity.

That means the

closer the planet
gets to the sun the
faster it will travel.
 Kepler’s 2nd Law
• The Law of Areas
 Kepler’s 3rd Law
2 2
• The Law of Periods
T T
– The way Kepler
showed it worked. 1
3
2
3
r 1r 2
We can use Earth’s orbit to calculate the mean radius of Mercury around the sun.
Data
Mean radius of Earth to Sun = 1.5 x1011 m
Period of Earth orbit = 3.16 x 107 s
Period of Mercury orbit = 88 Earth days
Kepler’s Law shows how it works for
the entire Solar System

r 3

t 2
 Kepler’s Laws Flashlet
• Have a go at creating your own orbits to
look at Kepler’s Laws

http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/kepler6.htm
 Newton proved Kepler’s Law of
Periods with Gravitation
He used his Universal Gravitation and Circular Motion to solve it.

Mm mv 2
F G 2 
r r T 2
4 2

v 
2 GM
remember v 
2r
3

r
2
T r GM
 2r 
So, v  
2

 T  T= Period in sec

GM 4 2 r 2 R = radius in metres
 G = Gravitational Constant
r T2
M = Mass of Large object kg
 Problem
• Determine the period of motion for a
satellite orbiting a planet when
– Planet’s mass is 7.2x 1012 kg
– Mean dist. of satellite to planet is 3.0 x 104m
• For the same planet a moon has twice
the period in comparison to the satellite.
– What is the moon’s distance from the planet.
 Calculating the Motion
of Satellites
• Gravitation provides the centripetal force
that produces the circular motion that is
the satellite’s orbit around a planet.
Therefore, it can be said that:
Gravitational force = Centripetal force

Satellite Motion Principles

Satellite Motion Mathematics
 Types of Orbits
The LEOs and the Geos
• LEO or Low Earth Orbit is an orbit higher than
250km and lower than 1000km.
• A Geostationary orbit is at an orbit where the
period of the Satellite’s orbit is equal to the
Earth’s period of rotation. It is approximately an
altitude of 35,800km.

Homework
• Find some uses for both Geos and Leos.
• What is the difference between a
Geostationary and a Geosynchronous
satellite?
Rocket Launch
 Pioneers of Space
Exploration
• Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-
Pelterie, O‘Neill and von Braun

• Library and Internet Lesson.

• Handout

• As a class we will gather information together

and create a timeline showing the cause and
effect of these physicists discoveries
 Rocket Launch
• Escape Velocity
• G Force
• Effect of Earth’s orbital motion on the
Rocket
• Changing Acceleration of Rocket in terms
of:
- Law of Conservation of Momentum
- forces experienced by astronauts
Escape Velocity
Handout on Esc
ape Velocity

Click here to calcul

ate escape velocity
on other planets
Calculating Escape Velocity
• To get something off Earth we need the Kinetic
Energy to equal or overcome the Potential Energy
that the Gravitational Field provides.
• Therefore the Law of Conservation of Energy
means that
KE = PE

M = mass of Earth

1 2 GMm m = mass of object

mvesc  V = velocity

2 r R = distance from centre of

Earth
Simplified Escape Velocity
2GM
vesc 
r
So calculate how fast we need to go from
Earth’s surface to escape Earth’s gravity.
Mass of Earth Radius to Earth’s Surface
= 5.98 x1024 = 6.37 x106

Answer = 11.2 km/s

 How would the rotation of Earth
affect the launch of a rocket?
• As the Earth spins on its axis of course depending on
where the rocket exits means it will be affected by he
spin.
• Therefore if the rocket exits with the spin it gets a boost
of speed.
• Yet if it exits against the spin of Earth it must travel
even faster to gain the required speed to get where it
wants to go.
It is easier to launch to the East.
Earth's rotational velocity is 465 m/s to the east at the
equator.

Remember the Average Escape Velocity is 11.2km/s

so,

A rocket launched tangentially from the Earth's

equator to the east requires an initial velocity of
about 10.735 km/s relative to earth to escape
whereas
A rocket launched tangentially from the Earth's
equator to the west requires an initial velocity of
about 11.665 km/s relative to earth.
 What about the Sun and
Earth’s orbit?
• If a rocket travels fast enough to escape
Earth’s atmosphere and reduce the
Gravitational pull it then enters the pull of
the Sun.
• Therefore timing is also important for
sending a rocket or probe for deep space
missions. Why do you think?
 Acceleration of Rockets
• As a rocket takes off it is acted upon by two forces.
– Gravity
– Thrust from the engine

F  ma  thrust  weight  T  mg
To be able to accelerate upwards the rocket’s thrust must be greater than that
of its weight.

So acceleration of a rocket is mathematically calculated by,

T  mg
As the rocket goes upwards fuel is burnt and the
mass of the rocket becomes smaller. a
The mass gets smaller so acceleration increases m
from Newton’s Second Law.
 The Conservation of
Momentum in Rocket Launch
• The rocket exhaust is what provides the thrust
in the rocket launch. Gases are ejected from
the back of the rocket and hence push the
rocket in the opposite direction. Therefore the
exhaust provides the impulse that drives the
rocket upwards.

•Newton’s Third Law states for p gases   procket

every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction. So the (mv) gases   (mv) rocket
change in momentum of the
gases equals the change in
(mv) gases
momentum of the rocket only in
the opposite direction. vrocket 
 mrocket
Gravitational Acceleration

• Gravitational Acceleration Information

 Pioneers
Identify data sources, gather, analyse and present information on the contribution
of one of the following to the development of space exploration:
Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, O‘Neill or von Braun

• Some useful data sources on rocket pioneers that are available from the Internet are
provided below. Decide on the type of information you will collect. Presenting
information in chronological sequence would be appropriate.
The evolution of the rocket NASA
Robert Goddard and his rockets NASA
The beginning From Space exploration: from Talisman of the past to gateway for
the future, John F. Graham, 1995, Chapter 7. Department of Space Studies,
University of North Dakota, USA
The pioneers of rocketry & space travel The ThinkQuest web site
Note that there are several other important rocket pioneers not mentioned in this
syllabus point for which information is readily available. Conversely, not all of the
pioneers mentioned have a plentiful supply of information available. Nevertheless,
there is a great deal of information available on Tsiolkovsky and Goddard, in
particular.
• Gather information from a range of sources. Analyse the information by identifying
trends and relationships as well as contradictions in data and information.
• Select and use an appropriate media to present your data and information. The use
of an annotated timeline would be appropriate.
Slingshot Effect or
Gravity Assist
&
Safe Re-entry to Earth
 The Slingshot Effect
The slingshot effect is used to increase - or sometimes to
decrease - the the speed, and to change the direction of motion of
an interplanetary spacecraft.
Three bodies must
always be involved
for the slingshot
effect to operate.
The satellites (usually
a planet and an
artificial one) must
both be in orbit
around a third central
body.

SlingshotEffectSattEarth.mov
 The Slingshot Effect
As a result of the slingshot effect, the satellite gains momentum
relative to the central body.

xx

SlingshotEffectSattEarth.mov
 The Slingshot Effect
The momentum gained by the satellite is not transferred back to
the planet after the satellite-planet interaction.
Momentum is
transferred between
the two because of
the gravitational
interaction between
them.
To gain momentum
the satellite must
approach the planet
so that it passes
behind the planet in
its orbit.
SlingshotEffectSattEarth.mov
 The Slingshot Effect
xx

xx
 The slingshot effect
• The slingshot effect is also known as a
planetary swing by or a gravity-assist
manoeuvre. It is performed to achieve an
increase in speed and/or a change of direction.
• A spacecraft is aimed close to a planet. As it
approaches, the spacecraft is caught by the
gravitational field of the planet, and swings
around it. The speed acquired is then sufficient
to throw the spacecraft back out again, away
from the planet. By controlling the approach,
the outcome of the manoeuvre can be
manipulated.
The Slingshot Effect
 Slingshot Effect
Momentum of a spacecraft
cannot be increased if the
planet is stationary. All
that can be achieved is a
change of direction.

Notice in the vector

diagram the magnitude
does not change.

Image thanks to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_slingshot
Let’s see it in action
The Voyager Probes
 Slingshot Effect
When a planet is moving a
spacecraft can use the
motion of the planet to
gain velocity. It does this
by taking a very small
amount of momentum
away from the planet’s
motion.
Notice in the vector
diagram the magnitude
and direction changes.

Image thanks to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_slingshot
 Slingshot Effect Flashlet

• http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/Slingshot.htm
 Landing a Rocket
• Issues of safety for rocket re-entry into
Earth’s atmosphere and landing on
Earth’s surface
- Heat
- G-Forces
- Radio Blockout
- Landing
 Re-entry of Shuttle
• Problems to overcome in
Re-entry
– Extreme Heat
– G Forces
– Communication problems

Homework
How do these problems impact on the
shuttle’s travel?
What are some features of the shuttle that
aim to reduces these impacts?
 G Forces

• G-Forces
 
Gravity effects all objects within the Earth's gravitational
field - G-force.

When a person is standing still on the earth, they are

experiencing One G (one times the force of gravity).
When a pilot in an airplane changes its orientation rapidly
(tight turns, loops, etc.), the aircraft will undergo
additional G-forces. These may be positive or
negative G-forces.
 Effects on Astronauts-
G Forces
• G force is a ratio that compares an
acceleration to the acceleration due to gravity.
An acceleration of 9G means an astronaut will
feel a force 9 times that of the pull of gravity.
• How much can a person withstand?
– 8G is the maximum safe load
– Ideally 3G is aimed for
 Positive G Forces
• Positive G's are generated when an aircraft pitches
upwards (the nose pulls up). For example, when the
aircraft turns quickly or pulls up sharply. A World War II
fighter may be capable of generating 7 G's or more.
The physical effect of Positive G's on a pilot is a
possible blackout.
• This is caused by the increased effort the heart must
generate to counter the G-forces and still supply the
brain with sufficient blood. When the G-forces are too
great, the pilot will slowly lose vision due to this lack of
blood supply. When prolonged, the blackout can cause
a loss of consciousness.
 Issues affecting spacecraft re-entry and landing
Orbiting spacecraft have a large amount of energy due to their:
• Altitude (giving the spacecraft potential energy)
• Speed (giving the spacecraft kinetic energy)
Problem: The space shuttle has a mass of approximately 82 tonnes
when it begins its re-entry manoeuvres. At an altitude of 300 km, the
shuttle has an orbital period of 91 minutes. Compare the kinetic and
potential energies of the space shuttle at this altitude.
2 R
MEarth = 5.97x10 kg note that:
24 v 
T
REarth = 6378 km  1 1 
GMm 6.67  10 –11  5.97  1024  82000x  – 
Ep = r 
6378000 6678000 

= 2.3x10
1 2  J
11
mv
Ek = 2
= 0.5 x 82000 x 77002 = 2.43 x 1012 J
 Issues affecting spacecraft re-entry and landing

For a satellite in LEO, the kinetic energy is about ten times the
potential energy and they are both very significant quantities of
energy.
 Issues affecting spacecraft re-entry and landing
To land safely, a spacecraft must reduce its speed by 90% as it
approaches the Earth.
The speed reduction is accomplished through
• Retro-rocket firing (slows the vehicle by about 1%)
• Frictional drag in the atmosphere
Frictional drag through the Earth’s atmosphere converts the energy
of the satellite to heat energy.
 Issues affecting spacecraft re-entry and landing
For spacecraft intended to for return to Earth, dissipation of the
heat energy generated by during re-entry is a major consideration
in the spacecraft design and re-entry process.
Key strategies employed to ensure the spacecraft does not burn up
include the use of
• heat resistant (high melting point) materials
• materials with very low thermal conductivity
• materials with a very low heat capacity
• ablation (burning off of material from the craft)
• heat radiation from the heated surface of the spacecraft
 Issues affecting spacecraft re-entry and landing
Retro-rockets slow the spacecraft slightly, causing its orbit to
decay.
The lower orbit results in much greater frictional drag, greatly
slowing the spacecraft.
The angle at which the spacecraft enters the atmosphere is critical.

• Too shallow an angle will cause the satellite to bounce off the
atmosphere and re-enter space
• Too steep an angle will cause too great an increase in drag,
causing the spacecraft to burn up in the atmosphere
 Issues affecting spacecraft re-entry and landing
There is thus an optimum angle at which a spacecraft returning to
Earth must enter the atmosphere
• 5–7°
Spacecraft - capsule

ablative heat shield

Protection of the shuttle during reentry is
achieved by insulating tiles made of silica
and placed on the under side of the craft.

Spacecraft
space shuttle
If space science was like sport!