1.

Power and RMS Values

1
 Instantaneous power p(t) flowing into the box
i (t )

+
Circuit in a box,
p(t )  v(t )  i (t ) v (t ) two wires
−
i (t )
ia (t )
+ ib (t )
Circuit in a box,
p(t )  va (t )  ia (t )  vb (t )  ib (t ) va (t ) + three wires
vb (t )
− −

Any wire can be the ia (t )  ib (t )

voltage reference

Works for any circuit, as long as all N wires are accounted for. There must
be (N – 1) voltage measurements, and (N – 1) current measurements. 2
 Average value of
periodic instantaneous power p(t)

1 t o T
Pavg   p(t )dt
T to

3
 Two-wire sinusoidal case
v(t )  V sin( ot   ), i(t )  I sin( ot   )

p(t )  v(t )  i(t )  V sin( ot   )  I sin( ot   )

zero average
 cos(   )  cos( 2ot     ) 
p(t )  VI  
 2 
1 t o T VI V I
Pavg   p(t )dt  cos(   )  cos(   )
T to 2 2 2

Pavg  Vrms I rms cos(   ) Power factor

Average power 4
Root-mean squared value of a Compare to the average power
periodic waveform with period T expression

1 t o T 2 1 t o T
2
Vrms   v (t )dt Pavg   p(t )dt
T to T to
The average value of the squared voltage
compare
Apply v(t) to a resistor

1 t o T 1 to T  v 2 (t )  1 t o T 2
Pavg   p(t )dt     dt   v (t )dt
t
T o T o  R 
t RT ot

2 rms is based on a power concept, describing the

Vrms
Pavg  equivalent voltage that will produce a given
R average power to a resistor

5
 Root-mean squared value of a periodic
waveform with period T
1 t o T 2
Vrms  
2
v (t )dt
T to

For the sinusoidal case v(t )  V sin( ot   ),

1 t o T 2 2
2
Vrms   V sin (ot   )dt
T to
t T
2 t T 2  sin 2(ot   )  o
2
Vrms 
V

o
 
1  cos 2(ot   ) dt 
V
t  
2T to 2T  2 o  to
2
V V
2
Vrms  , Vrms 
2 2
6
Given single-phase v(t) and i(t) waveforms for a load
• Determine their magnitudes and phase angles
• Determine the average power
• Determine the impedance of the load
• Using a series RL or RC equivalent, determine the R
and L or C
100

80

60

40

20
Voltage
0
Current
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
7
Determine voltage and current magnitudes and phase angles
Using a cosine reference,
Voltage cosine has peak = 100V, phase angle = -90º
Current cosine has peak = 50A, phase angle = -135º
~ 100 ~ 50
Phasors V    90 V , I    135 A
2 2
100

80

60

40

20
Voltage
0
Current
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
8
 The average power is

V I
Pavg   cos(   )
2 2

cos 90  ( 135 )  cos45 

100 50 100 50
Pavg   
2 2 2 2

Pavg  1767W

9
Voltage – Current Relationships

i R (t )  v R (t ) 
v R (t )
i R (t ) 
R

 v L (t ) 
i L (t ) di ( t )
v L (t )  L
dt

iC (t )  vC (t ) 
dv( t )
iC ( t )  C
dt
10
Thanks to Charles Steinmetz, Steady-State AC Problems
are Greatly Simplified with Phasor Analysis
(no differential equations are needed)

Time Domain Frequency Domain

~
v (t ) V
Resistor i R (t )  R Z R  ~R  R
R IR

voltage leads current

di ( t ) ~
VL
Inductor v L (t )  L Z L  ~  jL
dt IL

current leads voltage

dv( t ) ~
iC ( t )  C V 1
Capacitor Z C  ~C 
dt IC j C
11
 Problem 10.17

V1 V2

10020 1 
1 1 1 1    
1 1 1 1  j 4  3  2 100 20
V1   
~ 10020 

j4 2

 j4  3  2  ~ 1  1   ~    j 4 

2 
2 
  V1   1 
1
j  V2  10020
4 10020 1
1
1 
   2~   2   j 2   
 1 2  j 2 
~
 2  10020 
 1 1 1 V V1 
 1 D
 2 2  j 2   1 1  
 1 1 1 1 1  1
D        1       
 j4 3 2   2  j2   2   2 

 1 10020 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 100201   1 1   2 j4 
D        1   j    2 2   
 

 j 4 3 2   2  j 2 4
10020  1 1  1 
2 1
 1 1 100 20 
2  j2 
V2  
~   j 2  ~ 1
V1  
2
D D 12
c EE411, Problem 10.17

implicit none
dimension v_phasor(2), i_injection_phasor(2), y(2,2)
complex v_phasor, i_injection_phasor, y, determinant, i0_phasor
real pi

open(unit=6,file='EE411_Prob_10_17.txt')

pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0)

y(1,1) = 1.0 / cmplx(0.0,4.0)

1 + 1.0 / 3.0
2 + 1.0 / 2.0
y(1,2) = -1.0 / 2.0
y(2,1) = y(1,2)
y(2,2) = 1.0 / 2.0
1 + 1.0
2 + 1.0 / cmplx(0.0,-2.0)

i_injection_phasor(1) = 100.0
1 * cmplx(cos(20.0 * pi / 180.0),sin(20.0 * pi / 180.0))
2 / cmplx(0.0,4.0)

i_injection_phasor(2) = 100.0
1 * cmplx(cos(20.0 * pi / 180.0),sin(20.0 * pi / 180.0))

determinant = y(1,1) * y(2,2) - y(1,2) * y(2,1)

write(6,*) "determinant, rectangular = ",determinant
write(6,*) "determinant, polar = ", cabs(determinant),
1 atan2(aimag(determinant),real(determinant)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

v_phasor(1) = (i_injection_phasor(1) * y(2,2)

1 - y(1,2) * i_injection_phasor(2)) / determinant

v_phasor(2) = (y(1,1) * i_injection_phasor(2)

1 - i_injection_phasor(1) * y(2,1)) / determinant

write(6,*) "v_phasor(1), rectangular = ",v_phasor(1)

write(6,*) "v_phasor(1), polar = ", cabs(v_phasor(1)),
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(1)),real(v_phasor(1))) * 180.0 / pi 13
write(6,*)
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(1)),real(v_phasor(1))) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "v_phasor(2), rectangular = ",v_phasor(2)

write(6,*) "v_phasor(2), polar = ", cabs(v_phasor(2)),
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(2)),real(v_phasor(2))) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

i0_phasor = (v_phasor(1) - v_phasor(2)) / 2.0

write(6,*) "i0_phasor, rectangular = ",i0_phasor
write(6,*) "i0_phasor, polar = ", cabs(i0_phasor),
1 atan2(aimag(i0_phasor),real(i0_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi

write(6,*)

end

Program Results

determinant, rectangular = (1.125000,4.1666687E-02)

determinant, polar = 1.125771 2.121097

v_phasor(1), rectangular = (63.06294,-14.65763)

v_phasor(1), polar = 64.74397 -13.08485

v_phasor(2), rectangular = (80.67508,-8.976228)

v_phasor(2), polar = 81.17290 -6.348842

i0_phasor, rectangular = (-8.806068,-2.840703)

i0_phasor, polar = 9.252914 -162.1211

14
Active and Reactive Power Form a Power Triangle

V I V I
Pavg  cos(   ), Q sin(   ),
2 2 2 2
~ ~
S  V I  P  jQ

Complex
~ power Projection of
V  V S S on the
Q imaginary
(   ) (   ) axis
~
I  I P
Projection of S
on the real axis

cos(   ) is the power factor 15

Question: Why is there conservation of P and Q in a circuit?
Answer: Because of KCL, power cannot simply vanish but must
be accounted for

Consider a node, with voltage (to any reference), and three currents
~ ~ ~
I A  I B  IC  0

IA IB 
~~ ~ ~
V I A  I B  IC  0
V I A  I B  I C   0
~~ ~ ~ *
IC
PA  jQA  PB  jQB  PC  jQC  0

PA  PB  PC  0

QA  QB  QC  0

16
 Voltage and Current Phasors for R’s, L’s, C’s

~ Voltage and
V ~ ~
Resistor Z R  ~R  R, VR  RI R Current in phase Q=0
IR

Voltage leads
~ Current by 90°
VL ~ ~
Inductor Z L  ~  jL, VL  jLI L Q>0
IL

~ ~ Current leads
VC 1 ~ I
Capacitor Z C  ~  , VC  C Voltage by 90°
Q<0
IC j C j C

17
 Complex
power Projection of
S Q S on the
imaginary
(   ) axis

P
Projection of S
on the real axis


S  P  jQ  V  I  V  I *  VI   
~ ~*

P  VI cos   

Q  VI sin    
18
Resistor

~ *

~ V  V 2 V 2
S  P  jQ  V    
*

 
Z Z R
also

 
~ ~*
S  P  jQ  I Z  I  I 2 Z  I 2 R

so

V2
P  I 2R , Q0 Use rms V, I
R
19
Inductor

~ *

~ V 
S  P  jQ  V    
V2

V2

jV 2
Z   jL   jL L
*

also

 
S  P  jQ  I Z  I  I 2  jL  jI 2L
~ ~*

so

2
V
P  0, Q   I 2L Use rms V, I
L
20
Capacitor

~ *

~ V 
S  P  jQ  V    
V2
*

V2
1
  jCV 2
Z   1 
   jC
 jC 
also

    2
~ ~* 1 I
S  P  jQ  I Z  I  I 2     j
 jC  C
so

2
I
P  0 , Q  CV 2   Use rms V, I
C
21
 Active and Reactive Power for R’s, L’s, C’s
(a positive value is consumed, a negative value is produced)

Active Power P Reactive Power Q

2
Resistor Vrms 2
, I rms R 0
R
2
Vrms
Inductor 0
2
, I rms L
L
2
 I
Capacitor 0  CVrms
2
, rms ,
C
source of reactive power
22
 Now, demonstrate Excel spreadsheet
EE411_Voltage_Current_Power.xls
to show the relationship between v(t), i(t), p(t), P, and Q

Vmag = 1
Vang = 0
Imag = 0.90 90
Iang = -30 150
Phase A Phase A Phase A P Q Phase B Phase B Phase B Phase C Phase C Phase C A+B+C Q
wt v(t) I(t) p(t) 0.389711 0.225 v(t) I(t) p(t) v(t) I(t) p(t) p(t) 0.675
0 1 0.779423 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 -0.5 -0.779423 0.389711 -0.5 5.51E-17 -2.76E-17 1.169134 0.675
2 0.999391 0.794653 Power
Instantaneous 0.794169in Single-Phase
0.389711 Circuit
0.225 -0.469472 -0.763243 0.358321 Instantaneous
-0.529919 -0.03141 Power in Three-Phase
0.016645 1.169134 Circuit
0.675
4 0.997564 0.808915 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.438371 -0.746134 0.327084 -0.559193 -0.062781 0.035107 1.169134 0.675
6 0.994522 0.822191 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.406737 -0.728115 0.296151 -0.587785 -0.094076 0.055296 1.169134 0.675
1.5 1.5
8 0.990268 0.834465 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.374607 -0.70921 0.265675 -0.615661 -0.125256 0.077115 1.169134 0.675
10 0.984808 0.845723 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.34202 -0.68944 0.235802 -0.642788 -0.156283 0.100457 1.169134 0.675
12 0.978148 0.855951 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.309017 -0.66883 0.20668 -0.669131 -0.187121 0.125208 1.169134 0.675 va
14 0.970296 0.865136 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.275637 -0.647406 0.178449 -0.694658 -0.21773 0.151248 1.169134 0.675 ia
16 0.961262 0.873266 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.241922 va
-0.625193 0.151248 -0.71934 -0.248074 0.178449 1.169134 0.675 vb
18 0.951057 0.880333 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.207912 ia
-0.602218 0.125208 -0.743145 -0.278115 0.20668 1.169134 0.675
ib
0 20 0.939693 0.886327 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.173648 -0.578509
pa 0
0.100457 -0.766044 -0.307818 0.235802 1.169134 0.675
22 0.927184 0.891241 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.139173 -0.554095 0.077115 -0.788011 -0.337146 0.265675 1.169134 0.675 vc
P
24 0.913545 0.89507 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.104528 -0.529007 0.055296 -0.809017 -0.366063 0.296151 1.169134 0.675 ic
Q
26 0.898794 0.897808 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.069756 -0.503274 0.035107 -0.829038 -0.394534 0.327084 1.169134 0.675 pa+pb+pc
28 0.882948 0.899452 0.794169 0.389711 0.225 -0.034899 -0.476927 0.016645 -0.848048 -0.422524 0.358321 1.169134 0.675 Q
30 0.866025 0.9 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 6.13E-17 -0.45 -2.76E-17 -0.866025 -0.45 0.389711 1.169134 0.675
32 0.848048 0.899452 0.762778 0.389711 0.225 0.034899 -0.422524 -0.014746 -0.882948 -0.476927 0.421102 1.169134 0.675
-1.5 -1.5
34 0.829038 0.897808 0.744316 0.389711 0.225 0.069756 -0.394534 -0.027521 -0.898794 -0.503274 0.452339 1.169134 0.675
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
36 0.809017 0.89507 0.724127 0.389711 0.225 0.104528 -0.366063 -0.038264 -0.913545 -0.529007 0.483272 1.169134 0.675
38 0.788011 0.891241 0.702308 0.389711 0.225 0.139173 -0.337146 -0.046922 -0.927184 -0.554095 0.513748 1.169134 0.675

23
 A Single-Phase Power Example

A load consists of a 47Ω resistor and 10mH inductor in

series. The load is energized by a 120V, 60Hz voltage
source. The phase angle of the voltage source is zero.

a. Determine the phasor current

b. Determine the load P, pf, Q, and S.
c. Find an expression for instantaneous p(t)

24
 A Transmission Line Example
Calculate the P and Q flows (in per unit) for the loadflow situation shown below,
and also check conservation of P and Q.

0.05 + j0.15
PL + jQL pu ohms PR + jQR
VL = 1.020 /0° VR = 1.010 /-10°
IS
IcapL IcapR
j0.20 pu mhos j0.20 pu mhos

25
implicit none
complex vl_phasor,sl,icapl_phasor,zcl,is_phasor,zline
complex vr_phasor,sr,icapr_phasor,zcr

real vlmag,vlang,vrmag,vrang,pi,qcapl,qcapr
real vl_mag,vl_ang,vr_mag,vr_ang
real rline, xline, bcap
real pl,ql,pr,qr,is_mag,is_ang,icapl_mag,icapl_ang,icapr_mag,icapr_ang
real qline_loss

open(unit=6,file="EE411_Trans_Line.dat")
pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0)

vl_mag = 1.02
vl_ang = 0.0
vr_mag = 1.01
vr_ang = -10.0
rline = 0.05
xline = 0.15
bcap = 0.20

vl_phasor = vl_mag * cmplx(cos(vl_ang * pi / 180.0),sin(vl_ang * pi / 180.0))

vr_phasor = vr_mag * cmplx(cos(vr_ang * pi / 180.0),sin(vr_ang * pi / 180.0))

is_phasor = (vl_phasor - vr_phasor) / cmplx(rline,xline)

icapl_phasor = vl_phasor * cmplx(0.0,bcap)

icapr_phasor = vr_phasor * cmplx(0.0,bcap)

sl = vl_phasor * conjg(is_phasor + icapl_phasor)

sr = vr_phasor * conjg(-is_phasor + icapr_phasor)

pl = real(sl)
ql = aimag(sl)
pr = real(sr)
qr = aimag(sr)

write(6,*) "is_phasor (rectangular) = ",is_phasor

is_mag = cabs(is_phasor)
is_ang = atan2(aimag(is_phasor),real(is_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "is_phasor (polar) ",is_mag,is_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapl_phasor

icapl_mag = cabs(icapl_phasor)
icapl_ang = atan2(aimag(icapl_phasor),real(icapl_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi 26
write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (polar) ",icapl_mag,icapl_ang
write(6,*)
write(6,*) "is_phasor (rectangular) = ",is_phasor
is_mag = cabs(is_phasor)
is_ang = atan2(aimag(is_phasor),real(is_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "is_phasor (polar) ",is_mag,is_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapl_phasor

icapl_mag = cabs(icapl_phasor)
icapl_ang = atan2(aimag(icapl_phasor),real(icapl_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (polar) ",icapl_mag,icapl_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapr_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapr_phasor

icapr_mag = cabs(icapr_phasor)
icapr_ang = atan2(aimag(icapr_phasor),real(icapr_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "icapr_phasor (polar) ",icapr_mag,icapr_ang
write(6,*)

qcapl = cabs(vl_phasor) * cabs(vl_phasor) * (-bcap)

qcapr = cabs(vr_phasor) * cabs(vr_phasor) * (-bcap)

write(6,*) "pl = ",pl

write(6,*) "ql = ",ql
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pr = ",pr

write(6,*) "qr = ",qr
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "qcapl = ",qcapl

write(6,*) "qcapr = ",qcapr
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pl + pr = ",(pl + pr)

write(6,*) "ql + qr = ",(ql + qr)
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pline_loss = ",cabs(is_phasor) * cabs(is_phasor) * rline

qline_loss = cabs(is_phasor) * cabs(is_phasor) * xline
write(6,*) "qline_loss = ",qline_loss
write(6,*) "qline_loss + qcapl + qcapr = ",(qline_loss + qcapl + qcapr)
write(6,*)

end

27
 0.05 + j0.15
PL + jQL pu ohms PR + jQR
VL = 1.020 /0° VR = 1.010 /-10°
IS
IcapL IcapR
j0.20 pu mhos j0.20 pu mhos

-----------------------------------
Results

is_phasor (rectangular) = (1.102996,0.1987045)

is_phasor (polar) 1.120752 10.21229

icapl_phasor (rectangular) = (0.0000000E+00,0.2040000)

icapl_phasor (polar) 0.2040000 90.00000

icapr_phasor (rectangular) = (3.5076931E-02,0.1989312)

icapr_phasor (polar) 0.2020000 80.00000

pl = 1.125056
ql = -0.4107586

pr = -1.062252
qr = 0.1870712

qcapl = -0.2080800
qcapr = -0.2040200

pl + pr = 6.2804222E-02
ql + qr = -0.2236874

pline_loss = 6.2804200E-02
qline_loss = 0.1884126
qline_loss + qcapl + qcapr = -0.2236874 28
RMS of some common periodic waveforms

Duty cycle controller

V

0<D<1
By inspection, this is
0 the average value of
DT the squared
T waveform

T DT 2
1 2 1 V
Vrms   v (t )dt 
2
 V 2
dt   DT  DV 2
T T T
0 0

Vrms  V D
29
RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

Sawtooth
V

T 2 2T 2
1 V  V V 3T
Vrms    t  dt 
2

2
t dt  t
T T  T 3
3T 3 0
0 0

V
Vrms 
3
30
RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.
Using the power concept, it is easy to reason that the following waveforms
would all produce the same average power to a resistor, and thus their rms
values are identical and equal to the previous example

V V 0

0 0 -V

V V V

0 0 0

V
V
Vrms 
0 3
31
2. Three-Phase Circuits

32
 Three Important Properties of Three-Phase
Balanced Systems
• Because they form a balanced set, the a-b-c
currents sum to zero. Thus, there is no return
current through the neutral or ground, which
reduces wiring losses.
• A N-wire system needs (N – 1) meters. A three-
phase, four-wire system needs three meters. A
three-phase, three-wire system needs only two
meters. a
b Three-phase,
four wire system
c
n

Reference

• The instantaneous power is constant

33
 Observe Constant Three-Phase P and Q in Excel spreadsheet
1_Single_Phase_Three_Phase_Instantaneous_Power.xls

Vmag = 1
Vang = 0
Imag = 0.90 90
Iang = -30 150
Phase A Phase A Phase A P Q Phase B Phase B Phase B Phase C Phase C Phase C A+B+C Q
wt v(t) I(t) p(t) 0.389711 0.225 v(t) I(t) p(t) v(t) I(t) p(t) p(t) 0.675
0 1 0.779423 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 -0.5 -0.779423 0.389711 -0.5 5.51E-17 -2.76E-17 1.169134 0.675
2 0.999391 0.794653 Power
Instantaneous 0.794169in Single-Phase
0.389711 Circuit
0.225 -0.469472 -0.763243 0.358321 Instantaneous
-0.529919 -0.03141 Power in Three-Phase
0.016645 1.169134 Circuit
0.675
4 0.997564 0.808915 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.438371 -0.746134 0.327084 -0.559193 -0.062781 0.035107 1.169134 0.675
6 0.994522 0.822191 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.406737 -0.728115 0.296151 -0.587785 -0.094076 0.055296 1.169134 0.675
1.5 1.5
8 0.990268 0.834465 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.374607 -0.70921 0.265675 -0.615661 -0.125256 0.077115 1.169134 0.675
10 0.984808 0.845723 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.34202 -0.68944 0.235802 -0.642788 -0.156283 0.100457 1.169134 0.675
12 0.978148 0.855951 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.309017 -0.66883 0.20668 -0.669131 -0.187121 0.125208 1.169134 0.675 va
14 0.970296 0.865136 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.275637 -0.647406 0.178449 -0.694658 -0.21773 0.151248 1.169134 0.675 ia
16 0.961262 0.873266 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.241922 va
-0.625193 0.151248 -0.71934 -0.248074 0.178449 1.169134 0.675 vb
18 0.951057 0.880333 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.207912 ia
-0.602218 0.125208 -0.743145 -0.278115 0.20668 1.169134 0.675
ib
0 20 0.939693 0.886327 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.173648 -0.578509
pa 0
0.100457 -0.766044 -0.307818 0.235802 1.169134 0.675
22 0.927184 0.891241 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.139173 -0.554095 0.077115 -0.788011 -0.337146 0.265675 1.169134 0.675 vc
P
24 0.913545 0.89507 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.104528 -0.529007 0.055296 -0.809017 -0.366063 0.296151 1.169134 0.675 ic
Q
26 0.898794 0.897808 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.069756 -0.503274 0.035107 -0.829038 -0.394534 0.327084 1.169134 0.675 pa+pb+pc
28 0.882948 0.899452 0.794169 0.389711 0.225 -0.034899 -0.476927 0.016645 -0.848048 -0.422524 0.358321 1.169134 0.675 Q
30 0.866025 0.9 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 6.13E-17 -0.45 -2.76E-17 -0.866025 -0.45 0.389711 1.169134 0.675
32 0.848048 0.899452 0.762778 0.389711 0.225 0.034899 -0.422524 -0.014746 -0.882948 -0.476927 0.421102 1.169134 0.675
-1.5 -1.5
34 0.829038 0.897808 0.744316 0.389711 0.225 0.069756 -0.394534 -0.027521 -0.898794 -0.503274 0.452339 1.169134 0.675
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
36 0.809017 0.89507 0.724127 0.389711 0.225 0.104528 -0.366063 -0.038264 -0.913545 -0.529007 0.483272 1.169134 0.675
38 0.788011 0.891241 0.702308 0.389711 0.225 0.139173 -0.337146 -0.046922 -0.927184 -0.554095 0.513748 1.169134 0.675

34
 Imaginary

Vcn Vab = Van – Vbn

Vca = Vcn – Van

30°
Real
Van

120°

Vbn

Vbc =
Vbn – Vcn

The phasors are rotating counter-clockwise.

The magnitude of line-to-line voltage phasors is 3 times the magnitude of line-to-neutral voltage phasors. 35
 Imaginary

Vcn Vab = Van – Vbn

Vca = Vcn – Van

Ic

Ica
30°
Iab
Real
Ia Van
Line currents Ia, Ib, and Ic
Ib Ibc Delta currents Iab, Ibc, and Ica
Ic c

Vbn
Ica

Balanced Sets Add to Zero in Both Ibc

Time and Phasor Domains

Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Iab
Ib b
Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0 a
Vbc =
Vbn – Vcn – Vab +
Vab + Vbc + Vca = 0
Ia
1
Conservation of power requires that the magnitudes of delta currents Iab, Ica, and Ibc are
3
times the magnitude of line currents Ia, Ib, Ic. 36
 c
c
Ic
Ic
Z

3Z 3Z

n
Z Z

a b a
b
Ib Ib – Vab +
3Z
– Vab +

Ia Ia

The Two Above Loads are Equivalent in Balanced Systems

(i.e., same line currents Ia, Ib, Ic and phase-to-phase voltages Vab, Vbc, Vca in both cases)

37
 c
c
Ic
Ic

–
n Van
+

a b a
b
Ib Ib – Vab +

– Vab +

Ia Ia

The Two Above Sources are Equivalent in Balanced Systems

(i.e., same line currents Ia, Ib, Ic and phase-to-phase voltages Vab, Vbc, Vca in both cases)

38
 c
KCL: In = Ia + Ib + Ic
Ic
But for a balanced set,
Z Ia + Ib + Ic = 0, so In = 0

In
n
Z Z

b a

Ib – Vab +

Ia

Ground (i.e., V = 0)

The Experiment: Opening and closing the switch has no effect because In is already zero for a three-phase
balanced set. Since no current flows, even if there is a resistance in the grounding path, we must conclude that
Vn = 0 at the neutral point (or equivalent neutral point) of any balanced three phase load or source in a balanced
system. This allows us to draw a “one-line” diagram (typically for phase a) and solve a single-phase problem.
Solutions for phases b and c follow from the phase shifts that must exist.

39
 Zline
c c

Ic

3Zload 3Zload

b a b a
Zline
Ia 3Zload
– Vab +
Zline
Ib

Balanced three-phase systems, no matter if they are delta

connected, wye connected, or a mix, are easy to solve if you
Zline follow these steps:
a a 1. Convert the entire circuit to an equivalent wyewith a
Ia
grounded neutral.
2. Draw the one-line diagram for phase a, recognizing that
phase a has one third of the P and Q.
3. Solve the one-line diagram for line-to-neutral voltages and
+ line currents.
The “One-Line” Zload
Van 4. If needed, compute line-to-neutral voltages and line currents
Diagram
– for phases b and c using the ±120° relationships.
5. If needed, compute line-to-line voltages and delta currents
n n using the 3 and ±30° relationships.

40
Now Work a Three-Phase Motor Power Factor
Correction Example

A three-phase, 460V motor draws 5kW with a power factor of 0.80

lagging. Assuming that phasor voltage Van has phase angle zero,

• Find phasor currents Ia and Iab and (note – Iab is inside

the motor delta windings)

• Find the three phase motor Q and S

• How much capacitive kVAr (three-phase) should be connected in

parallel with the motor to improve the net power factor to 0.95?

• Assuming no change in motor voltage magnitude, what will be the

new phasor current Ia after the kVArs are added?

41
Now Work a Delta-Wye Conversion Example
The 60Hz system shown below is balanced. The line-to-line voltage of the source is 460V.
Resistors R are each 5Ω.

Z Z

Part a. If each Z is (90 + j45)Ω, determine the three-phase complex power delivered by the
source, and the three-phase complex power absorbed by the delta-connected Z loads.
~ ~
Part b. If Van at the source has phase angle zero, find Va'b' at the load.

Part c. Draw a phasor diagram that shows line currents Ia, Ib, and Ic, and
load currents Iab, Ibc, and Ica.

42
3. Transformers

43
 Single-Phase Transformer

Rs jXs
Ideal
Rm jXm Transformer
7200:240V
Turns ratio 7200:240
7200V 240V (30 : 1)
(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding)

44
 Short Circuit Test
Isc
Rs jXs
+ Ideal
Vsc Rm jXm Transformer
7200:240V
-

Short circuit test: Short circuit 7200V 240V

the 240V-side, and raise the
7200V-side voltage to a few
percent of 7200, until rated
current flows. There is almost
no core flux so the Φ
magnetizing terms are
negligible.
~
Vsc
Rs  jX s  ~
I sc

Turns ratio 7200:240

(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding) 45
 Open Circuit Test
Ioc
Rs jXs
Ideal +
Rm jXm Transformer Voc
7200:240V
-

7200V 240V

Open circuit test: Open circuit

the 7200V-side, and apply
Φ 240V to the 240V-side. The
winding currents are small, so
the series terms are negligible.
~
Voc
Rm || jX m  ~
I oc

Turns ratio 7200:240

(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding) 46
1. Given the standard percentage values below for a 125kVA transformer,
determine the R’s and X’s in the diagram, in Ω.
2. If the R’s and X’s are moved to the 240V side, compute the new Ω values.

Single Phase Transformer. Load

Percent values are given loss Xs
on transformer base. No
load Magnetizing
Winding 1 loss current
kv = 7.2, kVA = 125 Rs jXs

Ideal
Winding 2
kv = 0.24, kVA = 125 Rm jXm Transformer
7200:240V
%imag = 0.5

%loadloss = 0.9
7200V 240V

%noloadloss = 0.2 3. If standard open circuit and short circuit

tests are performed on this transformer, what
%Xs = 2.2 will be the P’s and Q’s (Watts and VArs)
measured in those tests?
47
 Annual Loss
Distribution Feeder Loss Secondary Lines
21%

Example
Transformer No-
• Annual energy loss = 2.40% Load
45%

• Largest component is transformer no-

load loss (45% of the 2.40%)
Primary Lines
26%

At Peak Hour Annual Energy Transformer Load

Demand values for the peak hour of (load + loss) Total kW % of Consump Total kWh % of Consumpt 8%
Consumption/Demand 5665 22222498
Total Loss 173 3.06% 534293 2.40%
Line Loss (Wires) 123 2.18% 250568 1.13%
Transformer Loss (load plus no-load) 50 0.88% 283726 1.28%
Load Loss (Wires and transformers) 144 2.54% 291879 1.31%
No-Load Loss (Transformer magnetizing) 29 0.52% 242414 1.09%
Primary Loss (Includes transformers) 116 2.05% 421316 1.90%
Secondary Loss (No transformers) 57 1.01% 112978 0.51%
Primary Lines (Wires) 66 1.17% 137590 0.62%
Secondary Lines (Wires) 57 1.01% 112978 0.51%
No-Load Loss (Transformer magnetizing) 29 0.52% 242414 1.09%
Transformer Load Loss 21 0.36% 41312 0.19%

Modern Distribution Transformer:

• Load loss at rated load (I2R in conductors) = 0.75% of rated transformer kW.
• No load loss at rated voltage (magnetizing, core steel) = 0.2% of rated
transformer kW.
• Magnetizing current = 0.5% of rated transformer amperes
 Single-Phase Transformer
Impedance Reflection by the Square of the Turns Ratio
Rs jXs
Ideal
Rm jXm Transformer
7200:240V

7200V 240V

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2
VHS N HS I HS N LS Z HS VHS / I HS VHS / I HS N 
~  , ~  ,  ~ ~    HS 
/ I LS V~ N LS ~ N
/ I HS HS  LS 
VLS N LS I LS N HS Z LS VLS N
HS
N HS N LS

2 2
 240   240 
jX s   Rs  
Ideal 2 2  7200   7200 
 240   240 
Transformer jX m   Rm  
7200:240V  7200   7200 

7200V 240V 49
Now Work a Single-Phase Transformer Example
Open circuit and short circuit tests are performed on asingle-phase, 7200:240V, 25kVA, 60Hz
distribution transformer. The results are:

 Short circuit test (short circuit the low-voltage side, energize the high-voltage side so that
rated current flows, and measure Psc and Qsc). Measured Psc = 400W, Qsc = 200VAr.

 Open circuit test (open circuit the high-voltage side, apply rated voltage to the low-voltage
side, and measure Poc and Qoc). Measured Poc = 100W, Q oc = 250VAr.

Determine the four impedance values (in ohms) for the transformer model shown.

Rs jXs
Ideal
Rm jXm Transformer
7200:240V
Turns ratio 7200:240
7200V 240V (30 : 1)
(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding) 50
A three-phase transformer can be three separate
single-phase transformers, or one large
transformer with three sets of windings

Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model

A Rs jXs
N1:N2 Ideal
Rm jXm Transformer
N1 : N2
N

N1:N2
• Reflect to side 2 using individual transformer
turns ratio N1:N2

N1:N2

Y-Y
51
For Delta-Delta Connection Model, Convert the
Transformer to Equivalent Wye-Wye

Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model

Rs jXs
A Ideal
3 3
N1:N2 Rm jXm Transformer
3 3 N1 N 2
:
N 3 3

N1:N2 • Convert side 1 impedances from delta to

equivalent wye
• Then reflect to side 2 using individual
transformer turns ratio N1:N2

N1:N2

Δ-Δ
52
For Delta-Wye Connection Model, Convert the
Transformer to Equivalent Wye-Wye

Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model

Rs jXs
A Ideal
3 3
N1:N2 Rm jXm Transformer
3 3 N1
: N2
N 3

N1:N2 • Convert side 1 impedances from delta to wye

• Then reflect to side 2 using three-phase bank
line-to-line turns ratio N 1 : 3 N 2

N1:N2

Δ-Y
53
For Wye-Delta Connection Model, Convert the
Transformer to Equivalent Wye-Wye

Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model

A Rs jXs Ideal
N1:N2 Transformer
Rm jXm
N2
N1 :
N 3

N1:N2
Reflect to side 2 using three-phase bank line-to-
line turns ratio 3 N 1 : N 2

So, for all configurations, the equivalent

N1:N2 wye-wye transformer ohms can be reflected
Y-Δ from one side to the other using the three-
phase bank line-to-line turns ratio
54
For wye-delta and delta-wye configurations, there is a
phase shift in line-to-line voltages because

• the individual transformer windings on one side

are connected line-to-neutral, and on the other
side are connected line-to-line
• But there is no phase shift in any of the
individual transformers
• This means that line-to-line voltages on the
delta side are in phase with line-to-neutral
voltages on the wye side
• Thus, phase shift in line-to-line voltages from
one side to the other is unavoidable, but it can
be managed by standard labeling to avoid
problems caused by paralleling transformers 55
Saturation – relative permeability decreases rapidly after 1.7 Tesla
Relative permeability drops from about 2000 to about 1 (becomes air core)
Magnetizing inductance of the core decreases, yielding a highly peaked
magnetizing current

Linear Scale Log10 Scale

56
 Residual
magnetism

Residual
magnetism

Hysteresis Loss is ½ the Area of the Parallelogram per AC Cycle per Cubic
57
Meter of Core Steel