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TOPIC: MENDELIAN LAWS OF

HEREDITY

1. Demonstrate understanding of the


Mendelian principles of heredity; and
2. Understand basic terminology
related to genetics, including:
dominant, recessive, homozygous,
heterozygous, gene, allele, genotype,
and phenotype.

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Mendelian
Genetics

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REVIEW……

What is genetics?

What is heredity?

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LET’S ENGAGE…..

What are the different


traits and characteristics
that you have inherited
from your parents.

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Let’s Explore….
ACTIVITY: “Human Traits
Genetics”
In this activity, you will
examine your own body for
presence of simple traits and
physical characteristics. After
which, Compare it on the
traits table.
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Questions:
1. What are the heritable
features that you have
inherited from your parents?
2. How about your traits?
(Parts of person character).

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Introduction to Genetics
GENETICS – branch of biology
that deals with heredity and
variation of organisms.

Chromosomes carry the


hereditary information (genes)
Chromosomes (and
genes) occur in pairs
Homologous
Chromosomes
New combinations of
genes occur in
sexual reproduction
- Fertilization
from two
parents
Gregor Johann Mendel
(1822-1884)

Responsible for
the Laws
governing
Inheritance of
Traits

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Gregor Johann Mendel
- Austrian Monk, born in what is now
Czech Republic in 1822
- Son of peasant farmer, studied
Theology and was ordained priest Order
St. Augustine.
- Went to the university of Vienna, where
he studied botany and learned the
Scientific Method
- Worked with pure lines of peas for
eight years
- Lived in a monastery
and taught high school
- Experimented with pea plants by
cross breeding plants with different
characteristics and studying
results.
- Known as the father of Genetics
-Studied the
inheritance of traits
in pea plants

-Developed the laws


of inheritance

- Mendel's work was


not recognized until
the turn of the 20th
century
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-Between 1856 and
1863, Mendel
cultivated and tested
some 28,000 pea
plants

- He found that the


plants' offspring
retained traits of the
parents

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Site of
Gregor
Mendel’s
experimental
garden in the
Czech
Republic

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Particulate Inheritance
-Mendel stated that
physical traits are
inherited as “particles”

- Mendel did not know


that the “particles” were
actually Chromosomes &
DNA

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Mendel’s Principles
1. Law of Inheritance
- Characteristics or traits are
inherited by individual units known as
“genes”.

Ex. a gene will


determine plant
height in peas.
2. Law of Segregation - states that during
the formation of reproductive cells
(gametes), pairs of hereditary factors
(genes) for a specific trait separate so
that offspring receive one factor from
each parent.
Ex. this flower
carries an allele for
white and an allele
for purple flowers
3. Law of
Independent
Assortment
- states that
chance
determines
which factor
for a particular
trait is
inherited.
4.Law of Dominance – states
that when 2 or more forms of
a gene exist (alleles), some
forms are dominant and others
are recessive.
Dominant/Recessive
Hitch Hikers Thumb Normal Thumb
Dominant/Recessive
Free Earlobes Attached Earlobes
Dominant/Recessive
Polydactyly is Dominant!!
Dominant/Recessive

Other examples of dominant traits:


Dimples
Tongue Rolling
Freckles
Curly hair (may be more than one
gene)
Genetic Terminology
1. Heredity - passing of traits from
parent to offspring.
2. Trait - any characteristic that can
be passed from parent to offspring.
(e.g. happy, friendly, white, black)

3. Characteristics: is the feature of an


organism or external appearance.
(e.g. color, height, size)
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4. Gene – the sequence
of DNA that codes for
a protein and thus
determines a trait.
- a unit of heredity.
E.g. – a gene will determine
plant height in peas.
5. Genome – the entire
set of genes in an
organism.
6. Alleles
– two genes that
occupy the
same position
on homologous
chromosomes
and that cover
the same trait. Ex. this flowers
carries an allele for
(e.g. Y and y) white and an allele
for purple flowers
7. Locus – a fixed location on a strand
of DNA where a gene or one of its
alleles is located.
8. Homozygous – having identical genes
(one from each parent) for a
particular characteristic.
(e.g. RR yy)
9. Heterozygous – having two different
genes for a particular characteristic
(e.g. Rr Yy)
10. Dominant – the allele of a gene
that masks or suppresses the
expression of an alternate allele;
the trait appears in the
heterozygous condition.
(e.g. YY RR WW)
11. Recessive – an allele that is
masked by a dominant allele; does
not appear in the heterozygous
condition, only in homozygous.
(e.g. Yy rr ww)
12. Genotype - gene
combination for a trait
(e.g. RR, Rr, rr)
13. Phenotype - the physical
feature resulting from a
genotype.
(e.g. red, white)

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Identify each of the following as: Homozygous
Dominant, Homozygous Recessive, Heterozygous,
Allele, Traits, and Characteristics.
1. bb - Homozygous Recessive
2. Color - Traits
3. TT - Homozygous Dominant
4. Gg - Heterozygous
5. Y - Allele
6. Brown eyes - Characteristics
7. Dwarf - Characteristics
8. Feature - Traits
9. Dark - Characteristics
10. Shape - Traits
END

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Types of Genetic Crosses
1. Monohybrid cross - cross
involving a single trait.
e.g. flower color.
2. Dihybrid cross - cross
involving two traits
e.g. flower color & plant
height
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Monohybrid cross: a genetic cross
involving a single pair of genes
(one trait); parents differ by a
single trait.
P = Parental generation
F1 = First filial generation;
offspring from a genetic cross.
F2 = Second filial generation of a
genetic cross
Punnett Square

Used to help
solve genetics
problems

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Genotype & Phenotype in Flowers
Genotype of alleles:
R = red flower
r = yellow flower
All genes occur in pairs, so 2
alleles affect a characteristic
Possible combinations are:
Genotypes RR Rr rr
Phenotypes RED RED YELLOW
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Genotypes
 Homozygous genotype - gene
combination involving 2 dominant
or 2 recessive genes (e.g. RR or
rr); also called pure
 Heterozygous genotype - gene
combination of one dominant &
one recessive allele (e.g. Rr);
also called hybrid
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Genes and Environment
Determine Characteristics

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Mendel’s Pea Plant
Experiments

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Why peas, Pisum sativum?
Can be grown in a
small area
Produce lots of
offspring
Produce pure plants
when allowed to
self-pollinate
several generations
Can be artificially
cross-pollinated
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How Mendel Began
Mendel
produced
pure
strains by
allowing the
plants to
self-
pollinate
for several
generations
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Eight Pea Plant Traits
Seed shape --- Round (R) or Wrinkled (r)
Seed Color ---- Yellow (Y) or Green (y)
Pod Shape --- Smooth (S) or wrinkled (s)
Pod Color --- Green (G) or Yellow (g)
Seed Coat Color ---Gray (G) or White (g)
Flower position---Axial (A) or Terminal (a)
Plant Height --- Tall (T) or Short (t)
Flower color --- Purple (P) or white (p)

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Mendel’s Experimental Results

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Did the observed ratio match
the theoretical ratio?
The theoretical or expected ratio of
plants producing round or wrinkled seeds
is 3 round :1 wrinkled
Mendel’s observed ratio was 2.96:1
The discrepancy is due to statistical
error
The larger the sample the more nearly
the results approximate to the
theoretical ratio
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Generation “Gap”
Parental P1 Generation = the parental
generation in a breeding experiment.
F1 generation = the first-generation
offspring in a breeding experiment. (1st
filial generation)
From breeding individuals from the P1
generation
F2 generation = the second-generation
offspring in a breeding experiment.
(2nd filial generation)
From breeding individuals from the F1
generation
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Following the Generations

Cross 2 Results Cross 2 Hybrids


Pure in all get
Plants Hybrids 3 Tall & 1 Short
TT x tt Tt TT, Tt, tt
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Monohybrid
Crosses

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P1 Monohybrid Cross
Trait: Seed Shape
Alleles: R – Round r – Wrinkled
Cross: Round seeds x Wrinkled seeds
RR x rr
Genotype: Rr
r r
Phenotype: Round
R Rr Rr Genotypic
Ratio: All alike
R Rr Rr Phenotypic
Ratio: All alike
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P1 Monohybrid Cross Review
 Homozygous dominant x Homozygous
recessive
 Offspring all Heterozygous
(hybrids)
 Offspring called F1 generation
 Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio is ALL
ALIKE

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F1 Monohybrid Cross
Trait: Seed Shape
Alleles: R – Round r – Wrinkled
Cross: Round seeds x Round seeds
Rr x Rr
Genotype: RR, Rr, rr
R r
Phenotype: Round &
RR Rr wrinkled
R
G.Ratio: 1:2:1
r Rr rr P.Ratio: 3:1

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F1 Monohybrid Cross Review
 Heterozygous x heterozygous
 Offspring:
25% Homozygous dominant RR
50% Heterozygous Rr
25% Homozygous Recessive rr
 Offspring called F2 generation
 Genotypic ratio is 1:2:1
 Phenotypic Ratio is 3:1

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What Do the Peas Look Like?

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F2 Monohybrid Cross (1 )
st

Trait: Seed Shape


Alleles: R – Round r – Wrinkled
Cross: Round seeds x Round seeds
RR x Rr
Genotype: RR, Rr
R r
Phenotype: Round
R RR Rr Genotypic
Ratio: 1:1
R RR Rr Phenotypic
Ratio: All alike
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F2 Monohybrid Cross (2nd)
Trait: Seed Shape
Alleles: R – Round r – Wrinkled
Cross: Homozygous Wrinkled seeds x
Heterozygous Round seeds
rr x Rr
R r Genotype: Rr, rr
Phenotype: Round &
r Rr rr Wrinkled
G. Ratio: 1:1
r Rr rr P.Ratio: 1:1

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F2 Monohybrid Cross Review
 Homozygous x heterozygous(hybrid)
 Offspring:
50% Homozygous RR or rr
50% Heterozygous Rr
 Phenotypic Ratio is 1:1
 Called Test Cross because the
offspring have SAME genotype as
parents

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Practice Your Crosses

Work the P1, F1, and both


F2 Crosses for each of the
other Seven Pea Plant
Traits

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Mendel’s Laws

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Results of Monohybrid Crosses
Inheritable factors or genes are
responsible for all heritable
characteristics
Phenotype is based on Genotype
Each trait is based on two genes,
one from the mother and the
other from the father
True-breeding individuals are
homozygous ( both alleles) are the
same
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Law of Dominance
In a cross of parents that are
pure for contrasting traits, only
one form of the trait will appear in
the next generation.
All the offspring will be
heterozygous and express only the
dominant trait.
RR x rr yields all Rr (round seeds)
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Law of Dominance

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Law of Segregation
During the formation of gametes
(eggs or sperm), the two alleles
responsible for a trait separate
from each other.
Alleles for a trait are then
"recombined" at fertilization,
producing the genotype for the
traits of the offspring.
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Applying the Law of Segregation

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Law of Independent
Assortment
Alleles for different traits are
distributed to sex cells (&
offspring) independently of one
another.
This law can be illustrated using
dihybrid crosses.

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Dihybrid Cross
A breeding experiment that tracks
the inheritance of two traits.
Mendel’s “Law of Independent
Assortment”
a. Each pair of alleles segregates
independently during gamete formation
b. Formula: 2n (n = # of heterozygotes)

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Question:
How many gametes will be produced
for the following allele arrangements?

Remember: 2n (n = # of heterozygotes)

1. RrYy

2. AaBbCCDd

3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq
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Answer:
1. RrYy: 2n = 22 = 4 gametes
RY Ry rY ry

2. AaBbCCDd: 2n = 23 = 8 gametes
ABCD ABCd AbCD AbCd
aBCD aBCd abCD abCD

3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 2n = 26 = 64
gametes
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Dihybrid Cross
Traits: Seed shape & Seed color
Alleles: R round
r wrinkled
Y yellow
y green

RrYy x RrYy

RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry

All possible gamete combinations


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Dihybrid Cross
RY Ry rY ry

RY

Ry

rY

ry

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Dihybrid Cross
RY Ry rY ry

RY RRYY Round/Yellow: 9
RRYy RrYY RrYy

Ry RRYy Round/green: 3
RRyy RrYy Rryy

wrinkled/Yellow: 3
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy
wrinkled/green: 1
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy 9:3:3:1 phenotypic
ratio
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Dihybrid Cross

Round/Yellow: 9
Round/green: 3
wrinkled/Yellow: 3
wrinkled/green: 1
9:3:3:1

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Test Cross
A mating between an individual of unknown
genotype and a homozygous recessive
individual.
Example: bbC__ x bbcc

BB = brown eyes
Bb = brown eyes
bb = blue eyes bC b___

bc
CC = curly hair
Cc = curly hair
cc = straight hair
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Test Cross
Possible results:

bC b___
C bC b___
c

bc bbCc bbCc or bc bbCc bbcc

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Summary of Mendel’s laws
PARENT
LAW OFFSPRING
CROSS

DOMINANCE TT x tt 100% Tt
tall x short tall

Tt x Tt 75% tall
SEGREGATION
tall x tall 25% short

9/16 round seeds & green


RrGg x RrGg pods
INDEPENDENT 3/16 round seeds & yellow
round & green pods
ASSORTMENT
x 3/16 wrinkled seeds & green
pods
round & green 1/16 wrinkled seeds & yellow
pods
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Incomplete Dominance
and
Codominance

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Incomplete Dominance

F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhat


in between the phenotypes of the two
parental varieties.
Example: snapdragons (flower)
red (RR) x white (rr) r r

RR = red flower R

rr = white flower
R

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Incomplete Dominance

r r
produces the
R Rr Rr
F1 generation
R Rr Rr All Rr = pink
(heterozygous pink)

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Incomplete Dominance

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Codominance
Two alleles are expressed (multiple
alleles) in heterozygous individuals.
Example: blood type

1. type A = IAIA or IAi


2. type B = IBIB or IBi
3. type AB = IAIB
4. type O = ii

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Codominance Problem
Example: homozygous male Type B (IBIB)
x
heterozygous female Type A (IAi)

IA i

IB IAIB IBi
1/2 = IAIB
1/2 = IBi
IB IAIB IBi

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Another Codominance Problem
• Example: male Type O (ii)
x
female type AB (IAIB)
IA IB

i IAi IBi 1/2 = IAi


1/2 = IBi
i IAi IBi

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Codominance
Question:
If a boy has a blood type O and
his sister has blood type
AB, what are the genotypes
and phenotypes of their
parents?

boy - type O (ii) X girl - type


AB (IAIB)
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Codominance
Answer:

IA i

IB IAIB Parents:
genotypes = IAi and IBi
phenotypes = A and B
i ii

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Sex-linked Traits

Traits (genes) located on the sex


chromosomes
Sex chromosomes are X and Y
XX genotype for females
XY genotype for males
Many sex-linked traits carried on X
chromosome

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Sex-linked Traits
Example: Eye color in fruit flies
Sex Chromosomes

fruit fly
eye color

XX chromosome - female Xy chromosome - male

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Sex-linked Trait Problem
Example: Eye color in fruit flies
(red-eyed male) x (white-eyed female)
XRY x XrXr
Remember: the Y chromosome in males
does not carry traits.
Xr Xr
RR = red eyed
Rr = red eyed
XR
rr = white eyed
XY = male
XX = female Y

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Sex-linked Trait Solution:

Xr Xr
50% red eyed
XR XR Xr XR Xr
female
50% white eyed
Y Xr Y Xr Y male

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Female Carriers

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Genetic Practice
Problems

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Breed the P1 generation

tall (TT) x dwarf (tt) pea plants

t t

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Solution:
tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea plants
t t

Tt Tt produces the
T
F1 generation
T Tt Tt All Tt = tall
(heterozygous tall)

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Breed the F1 generation

tall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plants

T t

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Solution:
tall (Tt) x tall (Tt) pea plants
T t
produces the
TT Tt F2 generation
T
1/4 (25%) = TT
Tt tt 1/2 (50%) = Tt
t
1/4 (25%) = tt
1:2:1 genotype
3:1 phenotype

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