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• Continuity equation
• Bernoulli’s equation or energy equation
• Momentum equation
• Equation of state
Continuity Equation
• Based on the law of conservation of mass which
states that matter cannot be created not
destroyed. Or in other words, the matter or mass
is constant. For one-dimensional steady flow,
the mass per second, AV
• As mass is constant, AV const
or d AV 0
or d ( AV ) AVd 0
or [ AdV VdA] AVd 0
dividing by AV
dV dA d
0
V A
Bernoulli’s Equation
• As we know Euler’s equation, dp
V dV g dZ1 0
const . c2
c2 c2
p1 V1 p2 V2
2 2
Z1 Z2
1 1 g 2 g 1 2 g 2g
Problem 1
• A gas is flowing through a horizontal pipe at a temperature
of 4 0C. The diameter of the pipe is 8 cm at a section 1-1 in
this pipe, the pressure is 30.3 N/cm2 (gauge). The diameter
of the pipe changes from 8 cm to 4 cm at the section 2-2,
where pressure is 20.3 N/cm2 (gauge). Find the velocities of
the gas at these sections assuming an isothermal process.
Take R= 287.14 Nm/kg K, and atmospheric pressure =
10N/cm2.
• Solution Clue:
• Applying continuity equation at section 1-2 and find ratio of velocity in
terms of density ratio
p1 p2
• Use isothermal relation, , and find V1 and V2 relation
1 2
• Use Bernoulli’s equation at 1-2 to find ratio of p1 and use p1 RT1
1 1
• ANS: V1= 40.75 m/s and V2 = 216.79 m/s
Problem 2
• A gas with a velocity of 300 m/s is flowing through a
horizontal pipe at a section where pressure is 6 X 104
N/m2 (absolute) and temperature 40 0C. The pipe
changes in diameter and at this section the pressure is 9
X104 N/m2. Find the velocity of the gas at this section if
the flow of the gas is adiabatic. Take R = 287 J/kg 0K
and Cp/Cv =1.4
• Solution Clue:
• Apply Bernoulli’s equation at section 1-2
• Use relation of adiabatic flow p1 p2
• Solve above two equations 1 2
p1
• Use RT1
1
• Ans: V2 = 113 m/s
Stagnation Properties
• Recall definition of enthalpy
• Since
• ‘R’ is constant
• ‘k’ is only a function of T
• Speed of sound is only a
function of temperature
Mach Number
• Second important
parameter is the
Mach number Ma
• Ratio of fluid velocity
to the speed of sound
Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic • Flow regimes
Ma > 1 : Supersonic classified in terms of
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic Ma
Ma 1 : Transonic
Mach Number Contd..
• ‘Ma’ is up to 0.2 is the incompressible flow
region
• Here the fluid flow can be treated
incompressible without introducing any
appreciable error
• ‘Ma’ is < unity- subsonic flow region
• If ‘Ma’ is higher than 0.2 and the
compressibility effects consideration
• ‘Ma’ varies between the values slightly
higher/less than unity is the transonic flow
region
• If ‘Ma’ 1 then flow is sonic
• If ‘Ma’ >1 flow is super sonic
• If ‘Ma’ > 5 flow is hypersonic
Propagation of Pressure Waves
1D C 1 1
sin
1B V V / C M
Mach Cone: Tangent to the different circles which represent the propagated
spherical waves on both sides, cone having vortex at ‘B’
Mach angle: Defined as the half of the angle of the Mach cone
Zone of action: When ‘M’ >1, the effect of the disturbance is felt only in the
region inside the Mach cone. This region is called the zone of action
Zone of Silence: When ‘M’ >1, there is no effect of disturbance in the region
outside the Mach cone, is called zone of silence
One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
• For flow through
nozzles, diffusers, and
turbine blade passages,
flow quantities vary
primarily in the flow
direction
• Can be approximated as
1D isentropic flow
• Consider example of
Converging-Diverging
Duct
One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
• Example illustrates
• Ma = 1 at the location of the
smallest flow area, called the
throat
• Velocity continues to increase
past the throat, and is due to
decrease in density
• Area decreases, and then
increases. Known as a
converging - diverging
nozzle. Used to accelerate
gases to supersonic speeds.
One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
• Relationship between V, , and A are complex
• Derive relationship using continuity, Euler, and
velocity of sound equations
• Continuity
eq. 1
Area Velocity Relationship
• The Euler’s equation for compressible fluid is given by the equation,
dp
V dV g dz 0
• Neglecting the ‘z’ terms, dp
V dV 0
dp d
• This equation can also be written as, V dV 0
d
dp d
or V dV 0
d
dp
But C2
d
d
Hence, C 2 V dV 0 eq. 2
dA V dV dV dV V 2
From eq. 1 & eq. 2 2
2 1
A C V V C
dA dV
A
V
M 2 1
Area Velocity Relationship Contd..
dA dV
A
V
M 2 1
• For M < 1, the flow is sub-sonic and the right-hand side of
eq. is negative as (M2-1) is negative for the values of M < 1.
Hence dA/A > 0, dV/V < 0. This means that with the increase
of area, the velocity decreases and vice versa
• For M >1, the flow is super-sonic. The value of (M2-1) will be
positive and hence right-hand side of eq. will be positive.
Hence dA/A > 0 and also dV/V > 0. This means that with the
increase of area, velocity also increases
• For M = 1, the flow is called sonic flow. The value of (M2-1)
is zero. Hence right-hand side of eq. will be zero. Hence
dA/A =0. This means area is constant.
Flow through Nozzle & Diffuser
1 Z1 2 Z2
k 1 1 g 2 g k 1 2 g 2g
but Z1 Z 2 and also V1 0
k p1 k p2 V2
2
0
k 1 1 g k 1 g 2 g
k p1 p2 V2
2
or
k 1 1 g 2 g 2 g
k p1 p2 V2
2
or
k 1 1 2 2 g
2k p p 2k p p
or V2 1 2 1 1 2 1 eq.1
(k 1) 1 2 ( k 1) 1 2 p1
but for adiabatic flow, Pr. drop is small: Isothermal
k
p1 p2 p1 1 Pr. drop is large: Adiabatic
or
1k 2k p2 2
1/ k
1 p1
eq.2
2 p2
Put 2 in 1,
p p p
1/ k 11 / k
2k p p 2k
V2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
( k 1) 1 p1 p2 ( k 1) 1 p1
p p
k 1 / k
2k
1 1 2
(k 1) 1 p1
p1
k 1
p 2k
Let n 2 then, V2 1 n
k
p1 ( k 1) 1
Now, m 2 A2 V2 (Mass rate of flow of compressible fluid)
2k p k 1
2 A2 1 1 n
k
( k 1) 1
2
k 1
2k p1
A2 2 1 n k
( k 1) 1
1/ k
1 p
But from eq.2, 2 1/ k
1 2 1 n1/ k
p1 p1
2
p
2
2 1 n
2 2 k
2k p1 k 1
m A2 1 n 1 n k
2 2/ k
Now eq.
( k 1) 1
2k k2
k 1 2
A2 p1 1 n n k k
( k 1)
2k k2 k 1
A2 p1 1 n n k
k 1
Value of ‘n’ or p2/p1 for max. value of
mass rate of flow
m
We have 0
n
k
k 1 k 1 k 1
2 k 1 k 1
2 2
1 2
n n 0 n n 0 n
k k k
Or
n k k k 1
For k 1.4, n 0.528
• Use p2 p2
n p1
p1 n
2 n 1/ k
1 k
2 k
p1
• Then V2 = C2
Mass flow rate through Venturimeter
• Derivation Self study
k 1
2k p1 p2 k
1
k 1 1 p1
m 2 A2 V2 2 A2
A 2 p 2 / k
1 22 2
A1 p1
Or 2 1 2 1.57 kg / m3
1 k
2 k
p1
• Mass flow rate through venturimeter,
k 1
2k p1 p2 k
1
k 1 1 p1
m 2 A2 V2 2 A2 315 kg / s
A 2 p 2 / k
1 22 2
A1 p1
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
• Converging or converging-diverging nozzles are
found in many engineering applications
• Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft
propulsion, industrial blast nozzles, torch nozzles
• Here, we will study the effects of back pressure
(pressure at discharge) on the exit velocity,
mass flow rate, and pressure distribution along
the nozzle
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
• State 1: Pb = P0, there is no
flow, and pressure is constant.
• State 2: Pb < P0, pressure along
nozzle decreases.
• State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is
sonic, creating maximum flow
rate called choked flow.
• State 4: Pb < P *, there is no
change in flow or pressure
distribution in comparison to
state 3
• State 5: Pb =0, same as state 4.
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
• Under steady flow conditions, mass flow rate is
constant