UNIT III: OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING

1. Classification of Remote Sensor

2. Selection of sensor Parameter – Spatial Resolution,
Radiometric Resolution,
3. Selection of sensor Parameter – Spectral Resolution,
Reference Temporal Resolution
4. Optical and infrared camera
5. Quality of image in Optical system, Imaging mode
6. Types of Camera Photographic camera, Television camera
7. Introduction to Opto-Mechanical Sensors
8. Push broom Cameras
9. . Whiskbroom Cameras
• Active sensors: These sensors detect reflected
responses from objects which are irradiated
from artificially generated energy sources Ex :
Radar, camera with flash light Passive sensors:
These sensors detect reflected EMR from
natural source Ex : camera without flash light
(depends on solar energy), and all RS sensors
• Non Scanning or Framing sensors: Measure the
radiation coming from entire scene at once Ex:
Our eyes, Photo cameras
• Imaging sensors: Form image by collected
radiation 1. Scanning sensors: The scene is
sensed by point by point or measure the
radiation coming from point by point (equivalent
to small areas with in the scene) Along track
Scanners: Image is acquired by line by line
• Across track Scanners: Image is acquired by
pixel by pixel
• 2. Non imaging sensors: • These sensors do
not form the image • These are used to record
spectral quantity or parameter as a function of
time Ex: temperature measurement, study of
atmosphere
• Image Plane Scanning: Lens is used after the
scan mirror to focus the light on the detector
• Object Plane Scanning: Lens is placed before
the scan mirror to focus the light on the
detector
 CHARECTERISTICS OF SENSORS
• 1. Spatial resolution
• 2. Spectral resolution
• 3. Radiometric resolution
• 4. Temporal resolution
• Spatial Resolution describes how much detail
in a photographic image is visible to the
human eye. The ability to "resolve," or
separate, small details is one way of describing
what we call spatial resolution.
 Spatial resolution
• • It refers to the size of the smallest possible
object that can be detected
• It depends on the Instantaneous Field Of View
(IFOV) and the height of the satellite orbit
• It tells the pixel size on the ground surface
• The IFOV is the angular cone of visibility of
the sensor (A) and determines the area on the
Earth's surface which is "seen" from a given
altitude at one particular moment in time (B).
The size of the area viewed is determined by
multiplying the IFOV by the distance from the
ground to the sensor (C).
 pixels
• most remote sensing images are composed of a
matrix of picture elements, or pixels, which are
the smallest units of an image.
• Image pixels are normally square and represent
a certain area on an image.
• It is important to distinguish between pixel size
and spatial resolution - they are not
interchangeable.
• If a sensor has a spatial resolution of 20 meters
and an image from that sensor is displayed at
full resolution, each pixel represents an area of
20m x 20m on the ground.
• Scale:
• A map scale is the map distance ratio that
corresponds to the actual ground distance. The
scale on the map presents a distance
measurement between each landmark. As an
example on a 1: 1000000 cm scale map shows that
1 centimeter is equal to 1 kilometer on the ground
• The Scale Image command enlarges or reduces the
physical size of the image by changing the number
of pixels it contains. It changes the size of the
contents of the image and resizes the canvas
accordingly.
• Images where only large features are visible
are said to have coarse or low resolution.

• In fine or high resolution images, small

objects can be detected.
• Low resolution systems
• • Spatial resolution > 1km
• • MODIS, AVHRR
• • Medium resolution systems
• • Spatial resolution is 100m – 1km
• • IRS WiFS (188m), Landsat TM–Band 6
(120m), MODIS–Bands 1-7 (250-500m)
• High resolution systems
• Spatial resolution approximately in the range
5-100m • Landsat ETM+ (30m), IRS LISS-III
(23m MSS, 6m Panchromatic), IRS AWiFS (56-
70m), SPOT 5(2.5-5m Panchromatic)
• Very high resolution systems
• Spatial resolution less than 5m • GeoEye
(0.45m for Panchromatic, 1.65m for MSS),
IKONOS (0.8-1m Panchromatic), Quickbird
(2.4-2.8 m)
 10 m resolution, 30 m resolution, 80 m resolution,
10 m pixel size 10 m pixel size 10 m pixel size

– Picture shows different resolutions, which represents the

smallest distance that can be measured.
– It is observed that having low values of resolution give
better images, and specific to a certain region.
– For high resolution, though it gives more details, data
would be bulky and distinction between features may be
slightly difficult.
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Low spatial Moderate High Very high
resolution

MODIS . IRS WiFS (188m) Landsat ETM+ GeoEye (0.45m for

(30m) Panchromatic
and 1.65m for
MSS),

AVHRR Landsat TM IRS LISSIII (23m IKONOS (0.8-1m

(120m), MSS and 6m Panchromatic)
Panchromatic),

1-7 of MODIS AWiFS (56-70m), Quickbird (2.4-2.8

having resolution m)
250- 500m

SPOT 5(2.5-5m
Panchromatic

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188m
WiFS

360m
AWiFS
23.5 m
LISS-III

5.8m
PAN
2.5m
CARTOSAT
About the IKONOS Satellite
The IKONOS Satellite is a high-resolution satellite operated by GeoEye. It can yield
relevant data for nearly all aspects of environmental study.

IKONOS Satellite System: Sensor Characteristics

Launch Date 24 September 1999 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
Operational Life Over 7 years
Orbit 98.1 degree, sun synchronous
Speed on Orbit 7.5 kilometers per second
Speed Over the Ground 6.8 kilometers per second
Revolutions Around the Earth 14.7, every 24 hours
Altitude 681 kilometers
Resolution at Nadir 0.82 meters panchromatic; 3.2 meters multispectral
Resolution 26° Off-Nadir 1.0 meter panchromatic; 4.0 meters multispectral
Image Swath 11.3 kilometers at nadir; 13.8 kilometers at 26° off-nadir
Equator Crossing Time Nominally 10:30 AM solar time
Revisit Time Approximately 3 days at 40° latitude
Dynamic Range 11-bits per pixel
Image Bands Panchromatic, blue, green, red, near IR
 Spectral resolution
• It describes the ability of a sensor to
define fine wavelength ranges
• Sand is appear as coarser in finer
wavelength bands
• Spectral Resolution

– This represents the width of the spectral band and

the number of spectral bands in which the image
is taken.
– For example, a true colour photography, will
consist of 3 spectral bands, each sensitive to blue,
green and red region of the EM spectrum.
– For studying vegetation, we would go for a
combination of 4 bands, i.e., bands of the visible
light and IR band.

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– Thus, spectral resolution describes the ability of a
sensor to define fine wavelengths intervals. The
finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the
wavelengths range for a particular band.
– To improve the better potential of the system to
discriminate between features, it is better to
increase the spectral resolution or increase the
number of bands. This would lead to more
narrower wavelength bands and finer the spectral
resolution.
– Features, which may have rather similar reflectance over
a broad band, may differ in detail if the spectral interval
of sensing is narrowed.
– The use of several bands of the spectrum is referred to as
multispectral sensing.
– If a single band is used, then it is called Panchromatic
(PAN) imaging.
– Present-day sensor systems can detect hundreds of very
narrow spectral bands throughout the different regions of
the EM spectrum.
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– Their very high spectral resolution facilitates fine
discrimination between different targets.
– Advantage of narrow band over broad band
• Narrow bands give more spectral detail
• More bands = more information to store, transmit and
process
• BUT more bands enables discrimination of more
spectral detail
 Multispectral and Hyperspectral

• Multispectral imagery generally refers to 3 to 10

bands that are represented in pixels. Each band is
acquired using a remote sensing radiometer.

• Hyperspectral imagery consists of much narrower

bands (10-20 nm). A hyperspectral image could have
hundreds of thousands of bands. This uses an
imaging spectrometer.
 Multispectral Example: 5 wide bands

• Hyperspectral Example: Imagine hundreds of

narrow bands
 BIL, BIP, and BSQ raster files
• Band interleaved by line (BIL),

• band interleaved by pixel (BIP), and

• band sequential (BSQ) are three common methods of

organizing image data for multiband images.

• BIL, BIP, and BSQ are not in themselves image formats but are

schemes for storing the actual pixel values of an image in a

file.These files support the display of single and multiband

images and handle black-and-white, grayscale, pseudo color,

true color, and multispectral image data.

• Band interleaved by line data stores pixel
information band by band for each line, or
row, of the image.

• For example, given a three-band image, all

three bands of data are written for row 1, all
three bands of data are written for row 2, and
so on, until the total number of rows in the
image is reached. The following diagram
illustrates BIL data for a three-band dataset:
• Band interleaved by pixel data is similar to BIL
data, except that the data for each pixel is
written band by band. For example, with the
same three-band image, the data for bands 1,
2, and 3 are written for the first pixel in
column 1; the data for bands 1, 2, and 3 are
written for the first pixel in column 2; and so
on.
• Band sequential format stores information for
the image one band at a time. In other words,
data for all the pixels for band 1 is stored first,
then data for all pixels for band 2, and so on.
 Radiometric resolution
• he radiometric resolution of image data in
remote sensing stands for the ability of the
sensor to distinguish different grey-scale
values. It is measured in bit. The more bit an
image has, the more grey-scale values can be
stored, and, thus, more differences in the
reflection on the land surfaces can be spotted.
•
 What is a "bit", then?

• In remote sensing, a bit stands for the number of

grey-scale values a spectral sensor can tell apart.
The greater the bit number, the greater the
number of grey-scale values a spectral sensor can
distinguish, and, therefore, the higher the
radiometric resolution of a spectral sensor. One
bit stands for a sensor that knows only black and
white. 2 bit equals 4 grey-scale values and 4 bit
16 values. The equation is as follows:
2 to the power of bit = number of grey-scale
values
2bit
8 bit image
• Radiometric Resolution

– Describe the actual information content in the image.

– It is the capability to differentiate the spectral reflectance or emittance
between various targets.
– It is the smallest change in intensity level that can be detected by the
sensing system.
– It is the ability of the system to discriminate very slight differences in
energy.
– Every time an image is acquired by a sensor, its sensitivity to the
magnitude of the EME determines the radiometric resolution.
– It is expressed as the number of binary digits, i.e, bits, recorded as
exponents of power 2.
– If a sensor used 8 bits to record the data, there would be 256 digital
values available ranging from 0 – 255, representing different colours.
– Likewise, if only 4 bits were used, then there are 16 values ranging
from 0 – 15.
– The finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more sensitive it is
for detecting small differences in reflected or emitted energy.

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• Temporal Resolution

– Indicates the time interval between successive overpasses of the

sensor when the imaging is repeated, i.e., the satellite revisits the
same area (referred to as revisit period and it is usually several days)
– During each successive overpass, changes or variations in reflectivity
or emissivity of objects is expected, and this can be detected.
– The use of repeat coverage becomes necessary when the phenomena
of interest undergo significant changes with the passage of time.
– Very useful in identification of agricultural crops.
– This is important when studying
• Short-lived phenomena need to be imaged (Floods, oil slicks)
• Spread of a forest disease from one year to the next.
• Changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to
distinguish it from near-similar features (Wheat/Maize)

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 Radiometric resolution
• It describes the ability of sensor to
discriminate very slight differences in energy
• The number of brightness levels depends
upon the number of bits used
 Temporal resolution
• It refers to how often it records imagery of a
particular area, which means the frequency of
repetitive coverage
 Infrared camera
• A thermographic camera (also called an
infrared camera or thermal imaging camera)
is a device that forms an image
using infrared radiation, similar to a
common camera that forms an image using
visible light.
 Infrared camera Principle
• An infrared camera is a non-contact device
that detects infrared energy (heat) and
converts it into an electronic signal, which is
then processed to produce a thermal image
on a video monitor and perform temperature
calculations.
 how thermal imaging works
• All objects emit infrared energy (heat) as a function of their
temperature.
• The infrared energy emitted by an object is known as its heat
signature.
• In general, the hotter an object is, the more radiation it emits.
• A thermal imager (also known as a thermal camera) is
essentially a heat sensor that is capable of detecting tiny
differences in temperature.
• The device collects the infrared radiation from objects in the
scene and creates an electronic image based on information
about the temperature differences.
• Because objects are rarely precisely the same temperature as
other objects around them, a thermal camera can detect them
and they will appear as distinct in a thermal image.
• Thermal images are normally grayscale in
nature: black objects are cold, white objects
are hot and the depth of gray indicates
variations between the two.
• Some thermal cameras, however, add color to
images to help users identify objects at
different temperatures.
 Thermogram
• A special lens focuses the infrared light
emitted by all of the objects in view. The
focused light is scanned by a phased array of
infrared-detector elements. The detector
elements create a very detailed temperature
pattern called a thermogram.