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Ordinary Differential
Equations (ODEs)
(2) m
a
m0
x m
a0
a1
x a 2
x 2
a 3
x 3
.
We shall assume that all variables and constants are real.
provided these limits exist and are not zero. [If these limits
are infinite, then (1) converges only at the center x0.]
Theorem 1
Existence of Power Series Solutions
If p, q, and r in (12) are analytic at x = x0, then every solution of
(12) is analytic at x = x0 and can thus be represented by a power
series in powers of x − x0 with radius of convergence R > 0.
m m
(
m0
a b )( x x 0
) m
(2) y( x) am x m
m 0
and its derivatives into (1), and denoting the constant
n(n + 1) simply by k, we obtain
(1 x ) m( m 1)am x
2 m 2
2 x mam x m1
k am x m 0.
m 2 m1 m0
By writing the first expression as two separate series we
have
the equation
m
m 2
( m 1) a m
x m 2
m( m 1)
m 2
a m
x m
m m 0.
2 ma x m
ka x m
m1 m 0
Section 5.2 p23 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
5.2 Legendre’s Equation. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x)
(
s 0
s 2)( s 1) a s
s 2
x
s 2
s( s 1) a s
xs
s s 0.
2 sa
s1
x ka x s s
s 0
Theorem 1
Frobenius Method
Let b(x) and c(x) be any functions that are analytic at x = 0. Then
the ODE
b( x) c( x)
(1) y
y 2 y0
x x
has at least one solution that can be represented in the form
(2) y( x) x r am x m x r ( a0 a1x a2 x 2 ) ( a0 0)
m0
where the exponent r may be any (real or complex) number
(and r is chosen so that a0 ≠ 0).
The ODE (1) also has a second solution (such that these two
solutions are linearly independent) that may be similar to (2)
(with a different r and different coefficients) or may contain a
logarithmic term. (Details in Theorem 2 below.)
Section 5.3 p33 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
5.3 Extended Power Series Method: Frobenius Method
Theorem 2
Frobenius Method. Basis of Solutions. Three Cases
Suppose that the ODE (1) satisfies the assumptions in
Theorem 1. Let r1 and r2 be the roots of the indicial equation (4).
Then we have the following three cases.
Theorem 2 (continued)
Frobenius Method. Basis of Solutions. Three Cases
(continued)
Case 2. Double Root r1 = r2 = r
A basis is
(7) y1(x) = xr(a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + …) [r = (1 − b0)]
(of the same general form as before) and
(8) y2(x) = y1(x) ln x + xr(A1x + A2 x2 + …) (x > 0)
Theorem 2 (continued)
Frobenius Method. Basis of Solutions. Three Cases
(continued)
Case 3. Roots Differing by an Integer.
A basis is
(9) y1 ( x) xr1 ( a0 a1x a2 x 2 )
(of the same general form as before) and
(10) y2 ( x) ky1 ( x)ln x xr2 ( A0 A1x A2 x 2 ),
where the roots are so denoted that r1 − r2 > 0 and k may turn out
to be zero.
(m r )(m r 1)am x
m0
m r
( m r ) am x m r
m0
am x m r 2
2
m 0.
a x m r
m0 m 0
(14) 2 n
J n ( x) cos( x )
x 2 4
where ~ is read “asymptotically equal” and means that for
fixed n the quotient of the two sides approaches 1 as x → ∞.
Theorem 1
Derivatives, Recursions
The derivative of Jν(x) with respect to x can be expressed by
Jν−1(x) or Jν+1(x) by the formulas
(a) [ x J ( x)] x J 1 ( x)
(21)
(b) [ x J ( x)] x J 1 ( x).
2
(a) J1/2 ( x) sin x
(22) x
2
(b) J 1/2 ( x) cos x
x
1
(23) ( )
2
Theorem 1
General Solution of Bessel’s Equation
A general solution of Bessel’s equation for all values of ν
(and x > 0) is
(9) y(x) = C1Jν(x) + C2Jν(x).
(4) y( x) ( x x0 )
r
m
a
m0
( x x 0
) m
a0
( x x 0
) r
a1
( x x 0
) r 1