MACHINABILITY

INTRODUCTION 2 MACHINING STAINLESS STEEL 23

WORKPIECE MATERIAL
PROPERTIES 4
GENERAL
MACHINABILITY EFFECT
OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS 10
THE WORKPIECE MATERIALS 11
MACHINABILITY
OF CAST-IRON 29
MACHINABILITY EVALUATION -
TWO EXAMPLES 43
MACHINABILITY OF TOOL,
DIE AND MOULD MATERIALS 48

Supplementary part:
Machining of hard materials 60
Heat treatment of metals 70
Annealing 71
Hardening 75
Tempering 78
Case-hardening 83
Surface harding methods 86
Steel: the equilibrium and structures 91
Alloy Steels 98
 MACHINABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Machinability is not a universally de-fined,
standardized property. Gene-rally, it is
the ability of the workpiece material to be
machined, meaning how easy or
demanding it is to shape the workpiece
with a cutting tool. A medium
carbon steel is easier to machine
compared to a heat resistant alloy. Grey
cast-iron is easier to machine than chilled cast-
iron, while a sticky low-carbon steel can be
more demanding than some alloyed steels.
However, due to varying methods and
circumstances, and the development of cutting
tools, the concept of machinability is
ambiguous and not easily measured in
comparable values.
A comparison of all properties of the
workpiece material that affect the ma-
chining process is probably a more
precise but demanding documentation, not
easily available from all material
suppliers. The metallurgy, chemistry,
mechanics, heat treatment, additives,
inclusions, surface skin, etc. of the
workpiece material affect the machina-bility
as does the cutting edge, tool
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7
holding, machine tool, operation and
machining conditions. Machinability
values for materials can, even in the most
ambitious cases, only serve as a guide to
starting values for further optimization.
It is essential to know the workpiece
material and use a flexible, modern
approach when assessing the factors that can
make the machining operation
successful. However, the over-riding
priorities of cost-per-component, pro-
ductivity rate, predictability of tool-life to
generate a specific finish and machining
security often establish the basis for
assessing the individual production-
related concept of machinability. In per-
forming a certain number of operations in a
limited range of materials, a machine shop will
determine its priorities based on the
abilities or difficulties in machining.
Improving machinability may require, for
instance, improving the quality of
castings, changing to a free-machining
material, changing the tool material, tool
geometry, the condition of the fixturing or
the cutting fluid, etc.
In a broad sense, machinability is
viewed as the operational character of the
cutting tool/workpiece, described using
criteria such as:
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7
- tool-life
- chip formation
- surface texture
- metal removal rate
- cutting force/power
- built-up edge tendency
With a combination of useful work-piece
material data and machining tests,
machinability evaluation can be performed
to suit specific as well as general
production circumstances. How-ever, what
may be good machinability in one set of
circumstances may not be good in another.
For instance, the strength and hardness of a
workpiece material may not be a good
indication of the machinability. Other
factors are equally important – inclusions,
free-machining additives, micro-
structure, hard and abrasive
constituents, smearing tendency, etc. Also,
what may be considered good
machinability using one tool type and
material for a certain workpiece ma-
terial can be poor for another. The
ability and efficiency of the workpiece to
be machined is thus determined on a
broad basis using several variables: the
workpiece material, machine tool, the
operation, tool, cutting fluid, cutting
data, etc.
The main material groups in
metal cutting are made up of:
1.Steel
2.Stainless steel
3. Cast-iron
4. Heat resistant alloys
5.Aluminum, etc.
6.Hard steels
7. Titanium
# 1 Steel, Stainless Steel, Cast
Iron, Heat Resistant Super Alloys,
Aluminum, Hard Steels & Titanium
are all main material groups in
metal cutting.

A. TRUE

B. FALSE
# 1 Steel, Stainless Steel, Cast
Iron, Heat Resistant Super Alloys,
Aluminum, Hard Steels & Titanium
are all main material groups in
metal cutting.

A. TRUE

B. FALSE
 A
B C
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 %C
There is also a full grouping of ma-
terials included according to the CMC
(Coromant Material Classification) sy-
stem, which provides a logical overview
of the majority of workpiece materials
in metal cutting.
WORKPIECE MATERIAL PROPERTIES
When reviewing the most common
workpiece materials in order to assess
machinability and optimize machining
conditions, the main material-related
properties and their possible affect on
machining should be considered. The
adjoining diagrams above illustrate the
general trends of four mechanical
properties with varying carbon content:
A : tensile strengt h, B : har d nes s,
C: impact strength and D : elongation.
Hardness and strength
Usually, low values of hardness and
strength are favorable. The exceptions
ar e v er y d u cti le ma t er i al s wh e r e
problems like poor surface texture,
burr formation and short tool-life
arise from the formation of built-up
edge. Increasing the hardness using
methods such as cold drawing has a
positive affect.
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7
D
0 , 2 0 , 4 0 , 6 0 , 8 1, 0 1, 2 %C
Ductility
Low ductility values are generally posi-
tive. Chip formation is advantageous
and the cutting process is energy-effi-
cient. Low ductility comes with high
hardness and vice versa. Good machin-
ability is often a compromise between
hardness and ductility. In diagram (A)
ductility (D) and hardness (HB) are
plotted against tensile strength (TS).
Thermal conductivity
High thermal conductivity means that
the heat generated in the cutting pro-
cess is rapidly conducted away from
the cutting zone. Therefore, a high
value is generally beneficial from a
machining point of view. Thermal
conductivity can play an important
role in machinability but unfortunately
i t i s a p r o p e r t y t h a t i s n o t mu c h
improved within a certain alloy group.
The adjoining diagram, (B) shows the
machinability aspects for thermal
conductivity. The approximate machin-
ability rating (M) is seen in relation to
the thermal conductivity (TC )for five
material types:
1. Aluminum 4. Stainless steel
2 . Unallo yed steel 5 . High temp .
3. Alloyed steel super alloys
 D HB M
A TS B TC
Work hardening
When plastically deformed, metals
increase in strength to a varying extent. The
increase in strength depends on the rate of
deformation and the ability of the
material to work harden. A high work
hardening rate means a rapid increase of
strength in relation to the increasing
deformation rate. When cutting steel the
deformation rate is very high locally,
especially close to the cutting edge. Materials
with high work hardening rates are
austenitic stainless steels and several of the
high tempera-ture alloys. Carbon steels are
examples of materials with very low work
harden-ing rates. High work hardening
rates mean that a lot of energy is required for
chip formation (high specific cutting
force). A substantial increase in hard-ness
will then also take place in a thin layer of
the machined surface.
If the depth of the work hardened layer is
the same as the feed rate, the cutting edge
will be exposed to severe stress. The depth
of the work hardened layer and the level
of hardness is propor-tional to the
deformation rate at the cutting edge. A
sharp cutting edge with a large rake angle
means a reduced de-formation rate.
Therefore, a positive
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7
1
2
3
geometry will help to decrease the
layer and consequently reduce the
stress on the edge. Work hardening,
however, can also be an advantage in that
it reduces the tendency for BUE.
Inclusions
Macro inclusions are those which fall in a
size range larger than 150 µm (.006 inch).
They are often very hard and abrasive
and it is important to strive towards having
a material which is free from such
inclusions. Macro inclusions are associated
with low quality steels, in which they
originate from manu-facturing sources in
the furnace, the top slag, improper slag
removal, etc. Many sudden tool failures
can probably be attributed to this type of
inclusion.
The micro inclusions are always
present in a steel to some extent.
Their effect on the machinability can be
divided into a few categories:
1. Undesirable inclusions such as alu-
minates and spinells (Al2O3 and Ca).
These are hard and abrasive.
 D HB M
A TS B TC
Work hardening
When plastically deformed, metals
increase in strength to a varying extent. The
increase in strength depends on the rate of
deformation and the ability of the
material to work harden. A high work
hardening rate means a rapid increase of
strength in relation to the increasing
deformation rate. When cutting steel the
deformation rate is very high locally,
especially close to the cutting edge. Materials
with high work hardening rates are
austenitic stainless steels and several of the
high tempera-ture alloys. Carbon steels are
examples of materials with very low work
harden-ing rates. High work hardening
rates mean that a lot of energy is required for
chip formation (high specific cutting
force). A substantial increase in hard-ness
will then also take place in a thin layer of
the machined surface.
If the depth of the work hardened layer is
the same as the feed rate, the cutting edge
will be exposed to severe stress. The depth
of the work hardened layer and the level
of hardness is propor-tional to the
deformation rate at the cutting edge. A
sharp cutting edge with a large rake angle
means a reduced de-formation rate.
Therefore, a positive
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7
1
2
3
geometry will help to decrease the
layer and consequently reduce the
stress on the edge. Work hardening,
however, can also be an advantage in that
it reduces the tendency for BUE.
Inclusions
Macro inclusions are those which fall in a
size range larger than 150 µm (.006 inch).
They are often very hard and abrasive
and it is important to strive towards having
a material which is free from such
inclusions. Macro inclusions are associated
with low quality steels, in which they
originate from manu-facturing sources in
the furnace, the top slag, improper slag
removal, etc. Many sudden tool failures
can probably be attributed to this type of
inclusion.
The micro inclusions are always
present in a steel to some extent.
Their effect on the machinability can be
divided into a few categories:
1. Undesirable inclusions such as alu-
minates and spinells (Al2O3 and Ca).
These are hard and abrasive.
# 2 Which materials have a high
work hardening rate?

A. Aluminum

B. 4140 Stainless Steel

C. 303 Stainless Steel

D. Cast Iron
# 2 Which materials have a high
work hardening rate?

A. Aluminum

B. 4140 Stainless Steel

C. 303 Stainless Steel

D. Cast Iron
2. Less undesirable inclusions like iron and
manganese oxides (FeO and MnO). Their
deformability is higher than that of the
previous group and they are able to
participate in the chip flow.
1. Desirable inclusions at high cutting
speeds, such as silicates (Si). The
reason for this is that at sufficiently high
cutting temperatures, silicates get softer
and are able to form an advantageous
layer in the cutting zone, thus retarding
tool wear.
There are now machinability improved
calcium-deoxidized steels, where, with
deoxidation of SiCa, it is possible to
achieve inclusions that have a low
melting point and are able to form the layer.
These inclusions are really only favorable
at relatively high cutting speeds.
Free machining additives
T he c o mmo n wa y to imp ro ve
machinability of steel is to add sulphur. The
sulphur content in a free-machining steel is
about ten times the amount in machinability
improved steels. Provided the steel contains
a sufficient amount
Steel turning
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7
of manganese, the sulphur and manga-nese
will form manganese sulphides. During
chip formation the sulphide in-clusions
deform plastically to produce planes of low
strength, along which the energy required for
crack initiation and propagation is lowered.
This facilitates deformation in the primary
shear zone and results in an increase of
shear angle and chip curl, as well as
a reduction in chip thickness, tool/chip
contact length and cutting temperature. In
addition, the sulphide functions on the
tool/chip interface as a lubricant. However,
the difference in machinability for two steels
of equal type with exactly the same sulphur
content can be substantial. Machinability
is improved by inclusions of sulphur and
lead, but in addition to the sulphur content, the
size, shape and distribution of the sulphides
can also determine machinability.
Another common additive is lead,
which behaves in a similar way to man-
ganese sulphide. It is common to use
combined additions of sulphur and lead.
Yet another additive is selenium, also often
found in combination with sulphur. Free
machining steels with sulphur and
selenium additions are common in carbon
steels and stainless steels - ferritic and
martensitic, as well as austenitic. Leaded
steels, or combined resulpherized and
leaded steels, are only found in carbon
steels.
Main properties that affect machinability:
 Hardness and strength
 Ductility
 Thermal conductivity
 Work hardening
 Inclusions
 Free machining additives
 Higher values of: General
machinability
influence

Hardness and strength -

Ductility -
Thermal conductivity +
Work hardening -
Inclusion content
- macro -
- micro -/+
Free machining
additives ++
Fabricated steel

Other properties in addition to austenite, that more

that affect machinability:
 Material structure
 Workpiece conditions
 Alloying elements
 Surface integrity
Grain structure
The structure of the material also affects
machinability. Some structures have
abrasive properties. In addition, the
strength of materials is altered depending on ferrite and cementite, and takes up an
the type of structure. The abrasive
constituents of steel are carbides. The
amount and form of the carbides
influences the material property. The
amount of carbon and other alloying
elements affects the structure.
Carbon is the most important alloying
element in carbon steels and, depend-ing pends mainly on the carbon content.
on the content, different structures are
obtained. At room temperature and in
an unhardened condition, there are
basically three types of structures,
directly influence machinability:
- Ferrite
- Pearlite
- Cementite
Ferrite is soft and ductile while cemen-tite
is hard and abrasive. Cementite is in fact
the hardest structure that can be
obtained, even harder than marten-site.
Pearlite is a mix of ferrite and
cementite, in the form of lamellas of
intermediate position in hardness. The
hardness of lamellar pearlite also depends
on the size of the lamells. The fine lamellar
type gives higher hardness than coarse.
The amount of ferrite, pearlite and
cementite in the steel structure de-
Due to the extreme abrasiveness of ce-
mentite, even small amounts of cemen-
tite have considerable impact on tool-

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-7

life, and thus machinability. Further-more,
ferritic steels generally have better
machinability than martensitic steels.
Workpiece conditions
The common conditions of workpieces are:
- Hot rolled
- Normalized
- Annealed
- Cold drawn
- Hardened and tempered
The hot rolled condition has in many
cases an inconsistent and coarse struc-
ture. This is because during hot work-ing
the material has been exposed to high
temperatures for a long time, making
the structure comparatively coarse. When
dealing with machinability, the inconsistent
structure can result in deviations/voids,
depending on the amount of uniformity in
the material.
During the normalization process, the
material is heated to within the aus-
tenizing temperature and, after full
transformation into austenite, the
material is immediately cooled down to room
temperature. This is in order to achieve a
finer and more homogenous structure than
that of the hot worked condition.
Normalizing aims mainly at

Steel manufacturing, structure and alloying elements affect machinability

II-8 MODERN METAL CUTTING

improving the toughness behavior of the
material. Due to the more uniform structure,
an improved, even machina-bility level is
achieved.

In most cases, the annealed condition is such

that the material has had a soft-annealing
process to actually soften the material.
In the process, the cementite
lamellas of the pearlite are transformed
into spherodized cementite, resulting in a
structure of ferrite with a uniform
distribution of spherodized cementite,
where the hardness is significantly
decreased. The spherodized form of the
cementite also means that when Workpiece condition affects machining
machined, the cutting edge will cut into the
hard and abrasive cementite over a shorter A material in the cold-worked condi-tion
dist-ance than in a material in non-annealed has generally been exposed to either
condition. Normally soft-annealing is only normalization or soft annealing. Cold
performed in steel with carbon contents working is mostly performed on
exceeding 0.5%. At high carbon comparatively small size blanks or
contents, the spherodization should be workpieces. In general, it is easier to
complete in order to get optimum produce uniform structures in smaller
machinability. For lower contents a certain workpieces. Cold working will increase
amount of pearlite is beneficial. The lower strength – how much depends on the area-
the carbon content, the higher content of reduction. The cold working in itself can
pearlite, which provides the optimum be favorable from a machining point of view
machinability. in that it may provide:
- improved surface texture,
Soft-annealing should not be mistaken for - reduced formation of built-up edge and
stress-relief annealing. As the name - reduced burr-formation
indicates, stress-relief annealing intends to
release stresses built up in a material during The hardness of the workpiece affects the
cooling or during a cold working amount of tool wear. In machining with
operation. If allowed to remain, such cemented carbide tools, approxi-mately 200
stresses may be released during HB has become a medium va lue wh ere
machining, thereby affecting har d n ess p la ys a n increasingly
straightness, tolerances, etc. Stress-relief important role in one way or another.
annealing is performed at low Considerably softer material may lead to
temperatures and should not affect the tendencies of built-up edge while
structure and as such not have much considerably harder material affects
effect on machinability. machinability negatively.

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

Milling steel connecting rods for marine engines

The surface integrity of the workpiece alloying elements have a marked posi-tive
material to be machined may affect the effect on machinability: lead (Pb), sulphur
result in the same way as macro- (S), phosphorus (P), etc. and are added
inclusions, resulting in poor surface in free-machining steels. Chip
texture, tool fracture, rapid tool wear, etc. formation is generally improved by
A pre-machined workpiece material may be a elements that reduce ductility. The analysis
better choice in some cases. Large of the workpiece material often focuses a
tolerances on blanks may mean extra great deal on the machin-ability of it.
machining operations and more effort to
achieve dimensions and required GENERAL MACHINABILITY
surface texture. Specification and EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS:
inspection of the quality and surface
integrity of the workpiece material is
an increasingly important factor in Negatively: Positively:
modern production. Mn
The alloying elements in a material Ni Pb
have a profound effect on its proper-ties. Co S
In steel, carbon is the dominating element Cr P
that determines much of the mechanical V
and machinability proper-ties. Others C < 0.3% C 0.3-0.6%
are nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese C > 0.6%
(Mn), vanadium (V), molybdenum (Mo), Mo
niobium (Nb), tungsten (W), copper Nb
(Cu), etc. Some W

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

Milling steel connecting rods for marine engines

The surface integrity of the workpiece alloying elements have a marked posi-tive
material to be machined may affect the effect on machinability: lead (Pb), sulphur
result in the same way as macro- (S), phosphorus (P), etc. and are added
inclusions, resulting in poor surface in free-machining steels. Chip
texture, tool fracture, rapid tool wear, etc. formation is generally improved by
A pre-machined workpiece material may be a elements that reduce ductility. The analysis
better choice in some cases. Large of the workpiece material often focuses a
tolerances on blanks may mean extra great deal on the machin-ability of it.
machining operations and more effort to
achieve dimensions and required GENERAL MACHINABILITY
surface texture. Specification and EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS:
inspection of the quality and surface
integrity of the workpiece material is
an increasingly important factor in Negatively: Positively:
modern production. Mn
The alloying elements in a material have Ni Pb
a profound effect on its proper-ties. In Co S
steel, carbon is the dominating element that Cr P
determines much of the mechanical and V
machinability proper-ties. Others are C < 0.3% C 0.3-0.6%
nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese C > 0.6%
(Mn), vanadium (V), molybdenum (Mo), Mo
niobium (Nb), tungsten (W), copper (Cu), Nb
etc. Some W

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

# 3 Chip formation is generally
improved by elements that
________ ductility.

A. Increased

B. Reduce
# 3 Chip formation is generally
improved by elements that
________ ductility.

A. Increased

B. Reduce
THE WORKPIECE MATERIALS
Most workpiece materials that are used in
metal cutting production are alloys of
iron, aluminum, copper and nickel.
Mechanical properties and machin-
ability of alloys are quite different than
those of the base metals. Similar
chemical analysis but different structure
usually means varying machinability.
Quality and material manufacturing
processes also affect machinability. It is
often useful to rate materials as easy-to-
machine, normal-to-machine and
difficult-to-machine and to assign the
various workpiece materials to one of these
groups.
Steel
Iron is the main constituent in ferrous
alloys. Steel has a carbon content of 0.05-
2% and dominates as the most widely
used workpiece material. When the carbon
content is above 2%, cast-iron is formed.
Below 0.05%, wrought iron is formed.
Carbon steel, also known as unalloyed
steel, contains only iron and carbon.
Alloy steel has additional alloying elements. process treatment. Some manganese is
By varying the carbon content, alloying
elements and heat treatments, an
enormous number of different steels with
varying properties can be attained. A
carbon content of less than 0.8% represents Alloyed steel
the under-eutectoid steels. Over-eutectoid When the various alloying elements are
steels contain more than 0.8% carbon.
Carbon/unalloyed steel
These are classified according to their
carbon content:
- mild steel, c 0.05-0.1% - mild steel,
c 0.1-0.25% - medium carbon steel, c
0.25-0.55%
- high carbon steel, c 0.55-0.8%
II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING
The plain carbon steels are mostly mild steel,
constructional steel, structural steel,
casting steel and some tool steels.
These are often hot-rolled, normalized,
stress-relieved, pressed or cold-drawn.
Medium-carbon steels may often be
machine and pressure vessel steels, but are
more likely to be constructional and used
for components that are machined. Some
case- or tough-hardening and hardening with
tempering occurs. Tool steels for hardening
are high-carbon steels.
With regards to machinability with low-
carbon steel, the low hardness and high
ductility is often a negative factor with
considerable tendency for smearing and
built-up edge, reducing tool-life and
giving poor surface texture. A
higher carbon content improves
machinability – hardness is increased
moderately and ductility decreased.
Machinability within this group of
materials varies considerably with the
addition of free machining additives,
manufacturing processes and post-
often present in these steels but not
regarded as an alloying element unless it
exceeds two percent.
equal to or less than 5% the steel is rated
as low-alloy steel. Above 5% is considered
high-alloy. These are often stronger and
harder than plain carbon steel and generally
more demanding in regards to
machinability, since an increase of
various alloying elements will generally
decrease machinability by increasing the
strength.
THE WORKPIECE MATERIALS
Most workpiece materials that are used in
metal cutting production are alloys of
iron, aluminum, copper and nickel.
Mechanical properties and machin-
ability of alloys are quite different than
those of the base metals. Similar
chemical analysis but different structure
usually means varying machinability.
Quality and material manufacturing
processes also affect machinability. It is
often useful to rate materials as easy-to-
machine, normal-to-machine and
difficult-to-machine and to assign the
various workpiece materials to one of these
groups.
Steel
Iron is the main constituent in ferrous
alloys. Steel has a carbon content of 0.05-
2% and dominates as the most widely
used workpiece material. When the carbon
content is above 2%, cast-iron is formed.
Below 0.05%, wrought iron is formed.
Carbon steel, also known as unalloyed
steel, contains only iron and carbon.
Alloy steel has additional alloying elements. process treatment. Some manganese is
By varying the carbon content, alloying
elements and heat treatments, an
enormous number of different steels with
varying properties can be attained. A
carbon content of less than 0.8% represents Alloyed steel
the under-eutectoid steels. Over-eutectoid When the various alloying elements are
steels contain more than 0.8% carbon.
Carbon/unalloyed steel
These are classified according to their
carbon content:
- mild steel, c 0.05-0.1% - mild steel,
c 0.1-0.25% - medium carbon steel, c
0.25-0.55%
- high carbon steel, c 0.55-0.8%
II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING
The plain carbon steels are mostly mild steel,
constructional steel, structural steel,
casting steel and some tool steels.
These are often hot-rolled, normalized,
stress-relieved, pressed or cold-drawn.
Medium-carbon steels may often be
machine and pressure vessel steels, but are
more likely to be constructional and used
for components that are machined. Some
case- or tough-hardening and hardening with
tempering occurs. Tool steels for hardening
are high-carbon steels.
With regards to machinability with low-
carbon steel, the low hardness and high
ductility is often a negative factor with
considerable tendency for smearing and
built-up edge, reducing tool-life and
giving poor surface texture. A
higher carbon content improves
machinability – hardness is increased
moderately and ductility decreased.
Machinability within this group of
materials varies considerably with the
addition of free machining additives,
manufacturing processes and post-
often present in these steels but not
regarded as an alloying element unless it
exceeds two percent.
equal to or less than 5% the steel is rated
as low-alloy steel. Above 5% is considered
high-alloy. These are often stronger and
harder than plain carbon steel and generally
more demanding in regards to
machinability, since an increase of
various alloying elements will generally
decrease machinability by increasing the
strength.
# 4 Medium carbon steel has what
percentage of carbon content?

A. .05-.1%

B. .1-.25%

C. .25-.55%

D. .55-.8%
# 4 Medium carbon steel has what
percentage of carbon content?

A. .05-.1%

B. .1-.25%

C. .25-.55%

D. .55-.8%
Alloying elements are usually in very low
proportions, often less than one percent,
and are added for various reasons: to
affect the alloy structure, eutectoid point,
transformation, hardness, strength, wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.
Nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr) and
molybdenum (Mo) are the most typical
additives, but vanadium (V), tungsten (W)
and cobalt (Co) occur in many steels.
Machining properties can also be improved
through the addi-tion of certain alloying
elements, such as lead (Pb), silicon (S),
manganese (Mn) etc. The heat treatment of
alloyed steel plays a role in machinability.
Some types of alloy tool steel, die and high
speed steel are high alloy steels and are
usually machined after having been
annealed to a suitable hardness where
machinability with cemented carbide is
satisfactory. Cubic boron nit-ride is a good
cutting tool alternative for machining
hardened tool steel where traditionally
grinding is the normal method. The
refractory metals such as molybdenum,
vanadium, chro-mium and tungsten form
very hard carbides in steel when used as
alloying
Turning of forged steel component
II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING
elements. Tool steel represents a
variety of different steel types, ranging
from carbon steel to low-alloy to
high-alloy steel. Typically, the carbon
content is in the region of 0.7-1.3% C.
Alloyed steel represents a large group of
materials that are machined exten-sively. In
line with the wide variation in properties,
structure and heat treat-ments, the
machinability obviously varies
considerably. While generally of good
machinability, the correct tool and
cutting data, as well as knowledge of the
workpiece material for the various
applications, is essential for optimization.
Machining of alloyed steel components has
changed character throughout several
industries. Near-net-shape blanks
produced by precision forging and casting
techniques have only small working
allowances, which means more demanding
chip control and other tool wear parameters
for maintaining tolerances. Also hardened
components are machined to an increasing
extent thanks to harder tool materials.
Stainless steel
This is an alloyed steel representing a properties: greater workability,
material group of its own. The chief toughness, high-temperature strength,
alloying element is chromium (Cr) with a weldability, corrosion resistance, etc. The
content of over 12%. Chromium is an steel in this state becomes non-magnetic.
essential part of stainless steel since it
Molybdenum has the same effect as
forms the oxide film on the surface.
chromium on the structure and gene-rally
Stainless steels are known for their
ability to resist corrosion. Generally the increases the strength and corro-sion
corrosion resistance increases in line resistance. These steels are often of the
with the increase in chromium content. acid-proof type. Nitrogen considerably
When the carbon content is high enough, increases the strength of austenitic
stainless chromium steels can be hardened steels and affects the structure in the
like carbon steel, increasing their strength. same way as nickel. Copper improves
corrosion resistance in certain acids.
Most stainless steels have significant Titanium and niobium stabilize the steel by
amounts of other alloying elements. The binding carbon. Other alloying elements are
purpose of these is generally to change the manganese, titanium, aluminum and silicone.
structure, improve corrosion resistance and
other properties, as well as strengthen the The main stainless steel types that are used
steel. Some properties are directly related to as workpiece materials are:
the grain structure – strength especially
varies considerably. - ferritic, 16-30% Cr, Ni, No, max
According to their structure, stainless 0.2% C
steels can be systemized into three
main groups: - martensitic (hardenable), 12-18% Cr,
2-4% Ni, 0.1-0.8% C
- ferritic - austenitic, 12-30% Cr, 7-25% Ni
-
martensitic - austenitic (with large amount
- austenitic manganese and less nickel)
Chromium, as the main alloying ele-ment, - maraging steels (high strength,
is a ferrite former and does not alter the hardenable), 9-25% Ni with varying
structure of ferrite. Stainless chromium amounts of Cr, Co, Mo, Ti and Al
steels, therefore, have pro-perties
resembling those of pure iron. Nickel is - Duplex stainless steel (ferritic-
another major element that affects the austenitic), 22-25% Cr, 4-7% Ni, Mo,
structure and mechanical properties. It is N and little carbon
a stabilizer and in-creases hardenability.
When the nickel content is high enough,
stainless steel has an austenitic structure,
which leads to significant changes of the
mechanical

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

Ferritic stainless steels:
100
The most common ferritic steel is the 17%
Cr-steel (ex: AISI 430) which has a fairly
low carbon content of below 0.10%. For
higher Cr-alloyed ferritic steels, the carbon
content is normally around 0.25%. 50
Except for trace contents of silicon (Si)
and manganese (Mn), chromium is the
only alloying element. In order to improve
0
corrosion pro- perties there are also
molybdenum (Mo) alloyed ferritic steels
where the Mo contents vary from 0.5% to
2%.

Free machining types are available in the

low-chromium alloyed ferritic steels, ABCD
where the most common free machining
additive is sulphur. Higher Cr-alloyed higher. Normally it is machined in this
types are selected in cases where corrosion condition and the hardening operation is
resistance properties are more important done after machining.
and the negative influence of sulphur
addition can normally not be accepted. There are many grades of stainless steel
As indi-cated by the name, this group and the machinability varies con-siderably –
has a ferritic structure with either more even for the same type of stainless steel.
or less Cr-carbides in the matrix and Machinability compari-sons, therefore, can
they are not hardenable. only be approxi-mate and the adjoining
diagram gives only a rough, average
Martensitic stainless steel: indication as to relative machinability
If the stainless steel has a sufficiently high between: (A) ferritic, (B) martensitic, (C)
carbon content it is possible to harden it austenitic and (D) duplex type stainless
and thus obtain a martensitic structure. In steels.
fact there are martensitic steels with a
carbon range of 0.2-1.0 and a chromium Austenitic stainless steels:
content of 13-18%. The low This is the most common group. From the
chromium/low carbon types are used in corrosion resistance point of view the
free machining conditions. austenitic type is superior to others. The
two previous groups are gener-ally only
Martensitic steels are often available in alloyed with chromium. The most common
an annealed condition consisting of a type of austenitic stain-less steel is the 18/8-
ferritic matrix with chromium type (ex: AISI 304). This indicates 18% Cr
carbides. Due to the higher carbon and 8% Ni. This steel represents a basic level
content compared to ferritic stainless of corrosion resistance within the austenitic
steels, the carbide content will be group. If improved corrosion properties
are

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

Ferritic stainless steels:
100
The most common ferritic steel is the 17%
Cr-steel (ex: AISI 430) which has a fairly
low carbon content of below 0.10%. For
higher Cr-alloyed ferritic steels, the carbon
content is normally around 0.25%. 50
Except for trace contents of silicon (Si)
and manganese (Mn), chromium is the
only alloying element. In order to improve
0
corrosion pro- perties there are also
molybdenum (Mo) alloyed ferritic steels
where the Mo contents vary from 0.5% to
2%.

Free machining types are available in the

low-chromium alloyed ferritic steels, ABCD
where the most common free machining
additive is sulphur. Higher Cr-alloyed higher. Normally it is machined in this
types are selected in cases where corrosion condition and the hardening operation is
resistance properties are more important done after machining.
and the negative influence of sulphur
addition can normally not be accepted. There are many grades of stainless steel
As indi-cated by the name, this group and the machinability varies con-siderably –
has a ferritic structure with either more even for the same type of stainless steel.
or less Cr-carbides in the matrix and Machinability compari-sons, therefore, can
they are not hardenable. only be approxi-mate and the adjoining
diagram gives only a rough, average
Martensitic stainless steel: indication as to relative machinability
If the stainless steel has a sufficiently high between: (A) ferritic, (B) martensitic, (C)
carbon content it is possible to harden it austenitic and (D) duplex type stainless
and thus obtain a martensitic structure. In steels.
fact there are martensitic steels with a
carbon range of 0.2-1.0 and a chromium Austenitic stainless steels:
content of 13-18%. The low This is the most common group. From the
chromium/low carbon types are used in corrosion resistance point of view the
free machining conditions. austenitic type is superior to others. The
two previous groups are gener-ally only
Martensitic steels are often available in alloyed with chromium. The most common
an annealed condition consisting of a type of austenitic stain-less steel is the 18/8-
ferritic matrix with chromium type (ex: AISI 304). This indicates 18% Cr
carbides. Due to the higher carbon and 8% Ni. This steel represents a basic level
content compared to ferritic stainless of corrosion resistance within the austenitic
steels, the carbide content will be group. If improved corrosion properties
are

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

# 5 Which molecule is added to
Stainless Steel to improve
corrosion resistance?

A. Carbon

B. Molybdenum

C. Carbide

D. Manganese
# 5 Which molecule is added to
Stainless Steel to improve
corrosion resistance?

A. Carbon

B. Molybdenum

C. Carbide

D. Manganese
required, the next step is to add molyb-
denum, thereby obtaining acid resistant
stainless steel. The 18/8 and 18/8+2% Mo
are responsible for the absolute majority
of austenitic steels. However, there are other
high alloyed examples, e.g. 26%
chromium, 22% nickel and also some with
copper, which are mostly used to improve
corrosion resistance.
There are three different types within the
18/8-type:
1. Low carbon content (0.08%)
2. Very low carbon content (0.03%)
3. Stabilized (Ti most common
stabilization element)
In the 18/8 group, there are also
free-machining alternatives available. Most
are resulpherized, but some use selenium.
Free machining additives, however,
impair the corrosion resist-ance and so
these steels are used in favorable
corrosion-conditions. In the 18/8+Mo type
there are low and very low carbon
alternatives but stabilized steels are not as
common. Common delivery conditions
are annealed and annealed/cold drawn.
up edge formation and poor threading
properties will also be reduced.
The ferritic steels have good machin-ability
properties. In fact, they are com-parable to
low alloyed carbon steels. The best
martensitic grades, with low Cr/C levels,
have similar characteristics. The austenitic
steels generally have a lower
machinability rating than the martensitic
steels.
The best machinability in stainless steel is
obtained with the 17% Cr and low-carbon
type. Increasing the chromium content
will reduce machinability. Ferritic
steels are more advantageous to machine.
The best machinability of the marten-sitic
steel is obtained with the 13% Cr (ex:
AISI 405) and low-carbon type. At
increasing levels of chromium and carbon
content, machinability will be decreased.
The high carbon types (0.8-1.0% C) in
particular are very abrasive due to
formation of carbides. The most common
martensitic type is the low Cr/C type.

The austenitic steels in annealed condi-tion

are quenched after annealing to ensure
the corrosion resistance, as well as to
maintain the machining performance. If
the cooling rate is too slow, hard and
abrasive carbides will be formed in the
grain borders.
From a machining point of view, the
annealed/cold drawn condition is usu-ally
beneficial, especially for the soft austenitic
and ferritic steels. Tool-life will be somewhat
decreased but problems with burr
formation, poor surfaces, built-
Stainless steel parts

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Vc A
(ft/min.)
1640
985
660 B
330 D
165

F
32 C

ƒ
(in/rev.)

.002 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .040 .080

Definition of area having satisfactory machinability

In most cases the martensitic steels are thermal conductivity. Generally, they are
machined in an annealed condition, but more difficult to machine than other
sometimes they are machined in a alloy steel. They tend to bond to the cutting
hardened and tempered condition. edge causing smearing and tool
High cutting temperatures should be fragmentation. Care has to be taken to
avoided to avoid over-tempering the avoid unpredictable tool per-formance.
steel. The austenite itself has a high work-
hardening rate. The work-hardening effect
The adjoining diagram gives a general can be very high, resulting in areas with
indication of the most suitable area extremely high hardness on machined
(cutting speed/feed) for machining surfaces.
austenitic steels with cemented carbide
inserts. Limitations that usually arise Cold working of steel generally means some
include: a high rate of crater wear degree of deformation hardening. The
throughout the area around ( A ), ferritic and martensitic steels ex-perience
excessive plastic deformation in the area about as much as unalloyed steel while the
around (B), and built up edge formation austenitic types undergo considerably more.
throughout the low cutting speed area Even normalized grades experience some
( C ). Also, there is a tendency for deformation hardening due to machining,
plastic deformation at speeds above line straightening, etc., which means that an
(D) and for crater wear at higher feeds indicated hardness from the core of the
below line (E). material may be up to twice as high at
the surface. It is therefore advantageous to
The austenitic steels are characterized select cutting depths and feed rates to
by a high work-hardening rate and low

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Unlike unalloyed steel, austenitic steel has
HV less thermal conductivity than carbon
350 steel. When machining carbon steel the
main part of the heat is carried away
300
by the chips. Austenitic s t e e l , w i t h i t s
l o w e r t h e r m a l conductivity and low
heat absorbing capacity, will give rise to
250 higher cutting edge temperature. Adequate
cooling is important for these
200 materials. In-creased amounts of alloying
elements increase the hot hardness
resulting in inferior machining properties.

20 18 14 10 6 2 0 0 Regarding cutting force variation,

penetrate beyond the hardened zones with
the cutting edge.
It is beneficial to machine austenitic steels
in a slightly cold drawn condition. In many
cases machining problems with austenitic
steels are associated with built-up edge
formation, bad surfaces, burr
formation and poor chip
formation. The cold drawn condition will
help to alleviate these problems to some
degree. This is where deformation hardening
is actually an advantage. A coarse
structure should be avoided since the
above mentioned properties will be
affected by coarse grain size.
austenitic stainless steel has a much
greater force (F) value fluctuation
during a given time (T) compared to
unalloyed steel. Whereas steel ( 1 )
follows a more continuous chip-
forming process, stainless steel (2) -
in this case austenitic - produces
interrupted, lamellar type chips. Cutting
forces vary more and waviness appears on
the machined surface.
Stabilized grades (mostly Ti alloyed) are
generally more difficult to machine since
the titanium forms Ti (C,N) which
increase the abrasiveness. As a result of
this formation, the carbon content of
the steel matrix will decrease, which
makes the steel more sensitive to built-up
edge formation.

F
F

T T

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

The most effective way to improve
machinability is to add sulphur to the steel.
Selenium is an alternative addi-tive. Free-
cutting austenitic steels are advantageous
in that a drastic increase of machinability
will take place in respect of tool-life and
chip formation. Surfaces can work harden
to 400-500 HB through plastic
deformation, with a thickness of around
.004 in. This layer should be
considered when selecting cutting data.
A negative rake or blunt edge increases
the layer while a sharp, positive and smooth
edge will decrease it. Stable and rigid
machine tools and cutting tools are
important. The cutting process is not as
continous as in carbon steel. Variations
can give rise to poor surfaces. A positive
edge helps to make the process more
continuous with less variations in forces,
temperature and deformation handling.
Coronite endmills machine most materials at considerably higher speeds
II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING
Machinability of a material is a property that
can have a decisive effect on productivity.
Depending on the type of machining and
production, machinability will have an
affect on the products, machines,
operations, cutting data, tools, cutting
fluids etc. Machine shops must consider
machinability in order to meet their
machining and production requirements.
For example, some machine shops
demand the best thread-ing properties, others
drilling, and so on. Some shops work with
higher speeds in modern CNC turning
lathes while others use multi-spindle
machines with demands for high mass-
production productivity. Keeping
machinability in mind, the set-up should be
composed so that there is low tool wear,
good chip formation and good surface
finish, at low and high speeds, with
cemented carbide tools.
 VB ap
L
H
A Tce B
The machinability of stainless steel
varies considerably. There are demands on
stainless steels, such as corrosion
resistance and tensile strength, that are
sometimes contradictory to good ma-
chinability. For example, it is easy to
improve the machinability properties by
adding sulphur to the steel. This is done in
some free-cutting steels. While this provides
good cutting properties it also creates poor
corrosion resistance. There are other
limitations for improving machinability,
including the material standards, which
must be considered. Therefore, it is
important to choose a method for
improving machinability properties
carefully.
In the development of Sandvik’s
SANMAC steels, great importance has
been placed on production-related
views in machine shops. Machinability-
improving additions have been made to the
steel so that improvement is gained over the
conventional variants of similar grades. Great
importance has also been placed on the
evenness of properties when choosing
cutting data for the lowest limit in the
machinability spread. SANMAC steels are
guaranteed to be tested for machinability
at the lowest
II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING
HL
I
limit. The testing is done to simulate pro-
duction of parts, not just to create a value
for comparison.
The effects of well-developed proportions of
inclusions mean considerably
improved machinability, as the adjoining
diagrams show for duplex stainless
steels. (H) indicates higher proportions of
inclusions and ( L ) lower. The
amounts of inclusions in both cases are very
small but are enough to provide longer
tool-life, or higher cutting speed possibilities
(A), as well as improved chip formation
(B).
Non-metallic inclusions have an
important bearing on the machining
characteristics of stainless steels.
Besides having optimized amounts,
modifica-tion and distribution of
sulphides, SANMAC stainless steels,
developed for improved machining,
contain soft oxidic inclusions that
promote good chip formation and have
a lubricating effect at high cutting speeds.
The improved machinability is achieved
without any impairment of corrosion
resistance, weldability, toughness or
mechanical properties of the material.
 Turning and threading stainless steel with CVD and PVD coated carbide grades, respectively

The difference in the machinability of A. is a different austenitic Mo-alloyed

various grades of stainless steel can be seen
(Cr,Ni) stainless steel with higher
in the adjoining series of cutting corrosion resistance than the steel in (A)
speed/feed diagrams. The first two and (B).
diagrams show the difference in yield B. is a high-alloy (Ni,Cr,Mo,Cu)
strength (YS) and in hardness (HV). austenitic stainless steel for very hot and
Indicated in each diagram for the corrosive environments.
C. is a duplex stainless steel (Cr,Ni,N) with
different grades of stainless steel are the
average tool-life achieved in each area relatively high corrosion resistance and high
and the limiting factors that formed mechanical strength.
D. is another duplex stainless steel
the areas. The principal type of insert used is
coated cemented carbide (GC) for ISO (Cr,Ni,Mo,N) with high strength and good
application area M. resistance to stress corrosion
E. is a high-alloy, duplex stainless steel
A. is a SANMAC grade of austenitic (Ni,Cr,Mo,Cu) with an optimized
(Cr,Ni) stainless steel with improved combination of good corrosion resistance and
machinability properties. high mechanical strength. It can withstand
B. is a standard grade of the same type highly demanding environ-ments.
of austenitic steel (Cr,Ni).

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

 HV
YS 300

200

100
O
A/B E F G A/B E F G
C/D C/D

Vc (ft/min)
980
GC GC
820 M 15 M 35
T= 10min T= 10min

660

490

330
A
A
164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 15 M 35
820 T=10min T= 10min
660

490
B
330

164
.004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Vc (ft/min)
980 GC
M 15
820
T= 10min
660

490
C
330

164
.004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING

Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC GC
M 15 T= M 35 M 35 T=
820 4min T= 4min 7min
660

490
D
330

164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Vc (ft/min)
980
GC GC
M 15 M 35
820
T= 10min T= 10min
660

490
E
330

164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 35 M 35
820 T= 10min
T= 4min
660

490
F
330

164
.004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

Vc (ft/min)
980 GC GC
M 35 T= M 35
820 7min T= 4min
660

490
G
330

164
0 .004 .008 .012 .016 .020 .024 .028
ƒ (in/rev)

II-22MODERN METAL CUTTING


MACHINING STAINLESS STEEL
When machining austenitic and ferritic/
martensitic stainless steels, there is
normally a low and a high-speed range
for most material types. Between these
(Vc: 130-295 and 590-1300 ft/min) lies
the troublesome built-up edge range.
Generally, the higher the alloy content
of a stainless steel, the more
demanding and costly the machining.
Demands for material properties such
as corrosion resistance limit the
amount of free-machining additives
for some applications. The following
characteristics (and consequences) are
typical for stainless steel machining: -
marked tendency for deformation
hardening (notching problems)
- tough and strong (high cutting
forces and demanding chipbreaking)
- smearing tendency (built-up edge
formation)
There are some general points and
recommendations for machining that
MODERN METAL CUTTING
Stainless steel parts and facing of tube
are especially useful for machining
stainless steel:
- Select machine tools having a stable
construction. A stiff machine base and
q ua l i t y o f sp i nd l e i s i mp o r ta n t.
Sufficient support should be provided
when turning long bars.
- To o l cl a mp i n g an d wo rkp i e c e
fixtu rin g shou ld b e a s st abl e a s
possible. Use minimum tool overhang.
Modular tools with high strength,
stable coupling recommended.
- Select the nose radius for the applica-
tion. An excessively large radius causes
vibrations. A smaller, but sufficiently
strong one often gives better chip
control and lower cutting forces.
- Use a cutting geometry that combines
high edge sharpness with sufficient
ed ge st ren gth . S el ect gra de and
geometry together to suit the
operation in question.
- To counter plastic deformation of
the cutting edge, use a larger nose
radius.
II-23
 - Employ a sufficiently large positive
rake angle and plenty of clearance.
Smaller edge rounding may be useful
for increased sharpness.
- For roughing operations, cutting
edges should have smallest possible
reinforcement land on edge.
- The right cutting fluid can be
used in large volume for turning to
facilitate heat removal from the
cutting zone.
- Select an insert geometry that gives
minimum friction/contact between chip
and chip face.
- For roughing, employ larger cutting
depths and feed rates in combination
with lower cutting speed, rather than
lower depths and feeds with higher
speeds.
- Roughing or semi-finishing should
leave sufficient working allowance
for finishing – to allow the tool to go
beyond the deformation-hardening
zone.
- Do not allow flank wear to develop
excessively. A dull cutting edge cuts
heavily and gives rise to more rapid
hardening – hardness up to HB 500 is
not uncommon in such cases, and
Turning with ideal chipbreaking
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
leaves the finishing tool with poor
machining conditions.
- Cermets should be considered a
useful option for turning and milling
stainless steel.
- Climb milling is recommended since
conventional milling has a longer
contact time in the deformation-
hardened layer and gives rise to
higher cutting forces.
- Avoid interruptions in feed move-
ment during machining, as this may
lead to ext ra lo cal d efo r mat ion
hardening. If unavoidable, exit and
enter with reduced table feed.
- The milling cutter position in relation
to th e w or kp i ece and th e cu tt er
diameter relationship to the radial
cutting depth are especially important
factors to get right for successful milling
of stainless steel.
- Cutting fluid in milling should only
be used for low cutting speeds and for
form-milling.
- A larger lead angle is beneficial. A
thick, hard burr may form with a large
entering angle which can then lead to
rapid, mechanical notch wear.
 Cast-iron
Cast-iron is an iron-carbon alloy
which usually has a carbon content of 2-
4% mixed with other elements like silicon,
manganese, phosphorous and sulphur.
Corrosion and heat resistance may be
improved with additions of nickel,
chromium, molybdenum and copper.
Good rigidity, compressive strength and
fluidity for casting are typical properties.
Ductility and strength can be improved with
various treatments which affect the
microstructure. Cast-iron is specified not by
chemical analysis but by the respective
mechanical pro-perties. This is partly Cast-iron housings for pumps
because the cool-ing rate affects the cast-
iron properties. will chill into white iron (hence the term
‘chilled cast-iron’. Modern casting
Carbon is present as carbide – both techniques control analysis, cooling rates, etc.,
cementite and free carbon – graphite. The to provide the cast-iron components with the
amount of these carbide forms depends right graphite structure. This also provides
partly on the amount of other elements in chilled parts where needed, such as a wear
the alloy. For instance, a high-silicon cast- face on a component. Manganese
iron will be made up of graphite with strengthens and toughens cast-iron and is
hardly any cementite. This is the type usually present in amounts of 0.5-1%.
known as grey iron. The silicon content
usually varies between 1-3%. A low For this reason, a thin or tapered
amount of silicon will stabilize carbides, so section will tend to be primarily white iron
the cast-iron will consist predominantly of because of the cooling effect in the mold.
cementite with little graphite. This is a hard Also the surface skin of the casting is often
but weak and brittle type called white iron. harder white iron with grey iron
Although the silicon content has a underneath.
decisive influence on the structure, the The basic structural constituents of the
cooling rate of cast-iron in castings is also different types of cast-iron are ferritic,
influential. Rapid cooling may not leave
pearlitic or a mixture of these.
enough time for grey iron to form as the
silicon has not had time to decompose the Varieties of cast-iron with a ferritic
cementite into graphite. Varying sectional matrix and little or no pearlite are easy to
thicknesses in castings affect the cooling rate, machine. They have low strength and
which affects the state of carbon. Thick normally a hardness of less than 150
sections will solidify into grey iron while Brinell. Because of the softness and
thin ones high ductility of ferrite these

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 types of cast-iron can be “sticky” and result contain alloying material. As with
in built-up edge forming at low c u t t i n g pearlite, cementite can be machined in thin
d a t a – b u t t h i s c a n b e counteracted plates. But in larger particles, which
by increasing the cutting speed, if the separate the constituents, they drastically
operation permits. reduce the machinability. Carbides often
occur in thin sections, projecting parts or
Types of cast-iron with ferritic/pearlitic or corners of castings due to the rapid
pearlitic matrices range from about 150 solidification of these parts. This gives a
Brinell with relatively low strength, to high- finer structure.
strength, hard cast-irons of 280- 300 Brinell
where the pearlitic matrix dominates. The hardness of cast-iron is often
measured in Brinell. It is an indication of
Pearlite has a stronger, harder and less machinability, which deteriorates with
ductile structure than ferrite, its strength increasing Brinell hardness. But the
and hardness depending on whether it has hardness value is an unreliable
rough or fine lamellar structure. The more measurement of machinability when two
fine-grained and more fine lamelli the factors which the value does not show are
pearlite is, the higher its strength and present.
hardness. This means it has smaller carbides
with less abrasive wear but is more - In most machining operations it is the hard
toughness-demanding due to smearing parts at the edges and corners of
and built up edge formation. components which cause problems
when machining. The Brinell test can-not
Carbides are extremely hard elements be carried out on edges and corners and
whether they are pure cementite or therefore the high hardness in these
parts is not discovered before machining
is undertaken.

Facemilling two very different cast-iron components in machine and automotive industry,
respectively.

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 - A Brinell test says nothing about the cast-
iron’s abrasive hardness, which is the
difference between the hardness on the
basic structure and the hardness of the
hardest constituent e.g. a particle of
carbide.
fine lamellar structure with high
strength properties is obtained.
The main types of cast-iron are:
- grey cast-iron, of various strengths

Ab r a sive h ard nes s d u e to sand - nodular cast-iron (ductile and

inclusions and free carbides is very spheroidal-graphite – SG)
negative for machinability. A cast-iron
of 200 Brinell and with a number of free
carbides is more difficult to machine - compacted-graphite cast-iron – CG
than a cast-iron of 200 Brinell and a
100% pearlitic structure with no free - malleable cast-iron
carbides.
- alloy cast-iron
Alloy additives in cast-iron affect
machinability because they can form or The main difference in these types is the
prevent the forming of carbides, and can form in which carbon, mainly graphite,
affect strength and/or hardness. The occurs.
structure within the cast-iron is affected
The general relative machinability (M) of
by the alloying material which, depending on
its individual character, can be divided into the four main kinds of cast-iron is
two groups. indicated in a diagram where (A) is grey
cast-iron, (B) malleable, (C) S.G. iron and
(D) chilled, white cast-iron.
1. Carbide forming:
chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), manga-nese
(Mn), molybdenum (Mo), vana-dium (V).

1. Graphititizing elements: 100

silicon (Si), nickel (Ni), aluminum (Al),
copper (Cu), titanium (Ti). M
A practical example of the use of
alloying materials is manufacturing of cast- 50
iron for engine blocks. To meet the
demands for increased power out-put and
reduced weight of the engine block, which
requires thinner walls, grey cast-iron is
often alloyed with chromium and nickel
and possibly some other materials such 0
as copper. In this way, an even, close-
grained,

ABCD

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

# 6 Which one is not main type of
cast iron?

A. Grey Cast Iron

B. Nodular Cast Iron

C. Red Cast Iron

D. Malleable Cast Iron

# 6 Which one is not main type of
cast iron?

A. Grey Cast Iron

B. Nodular Cast Iron

C. Red Cast Iron

D. Malleable Cast Iron

Red cast iron is enameled cast iron to

reduce corrosion in cookware.
 Automotive and marine engine components
Grey cast-iron
There is a large range of grey cast-irons with
varying tensile strengths. The sili-con
content/sectional area combination forms
various structures, of which the low-silicon,
fine graphite and pearlite make the
strongest and toughest material.
Tensile strength varies con-siderably
throughout the range. A coarse
graphite structure makes a weaker type
of material. Where metal cutting is
involved, a typical cast-iron often has a
silicon content of around 2%. Most
common are the low to high tensile types
and the austenitic type.
Nodular cast-iron (SG)
Here, the graphite is contained as
round nodules. Magnesium especially is
used to deposit the globules and is added
to create a magnesium-nickel alloy.
Tensile strength, toughness and ductility is
considerably improved. Ferritic, pearlitic
and martensitic with various tensile
strengths occur.
CG cast-iron is also a gr aphite
structure with properties between that of
grey and nodular cast-iron. The
graphite flakes are compacted into
short ones with round ends, through the
addition of titanium and other treatments.
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
Malleable cast-iron
When white iron is heat treated in a
particular way, ferritic, pearlitic or mar-
tensitic malleable cast-iron is formed. The
heat treatments may turn the cementite
into spherical carbon particles or
remove the carbides. The cast-iron product
is malleable, ductile and very strong. The
silicon content is low. Three categories
occur: ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic
which may also be categorized as
Blackheart, Whiteheart and pearlitic.
Alloy cast-iron
These cast-irons contain larger amounts of
alloying elements and generally have similar
effects on properties of cast-iron as they
do on steel. Alloying elements are used
to improve properties by affecting
structures. Nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, vanadium and copper are
common alloying elements. Graphite-
free white cast-iron is extremely wear
resistant. Cast-iron that contains
graphite is heat resistant and ductile.
Corrosion resistance, toughness,
hardness and heat resistance are also
typically improved by the use of
alloying elements in the cast-iron.
 MACHINABILITY OF CAST-IRON
When establishing the machinability
characteristics of cast-iron grades, it is
often useful to note the analysis and
structure:
- reduced carbon content results in
lower machinability since less fracture-
inducing graphite can be formed
- ferritic cast-iron with an increased
silicon content is stronger and less
ductile and tends to create less built-
up edge
- increased pearlitic content in the
matrix results in higher strength and
hardness and decreased machinability
- the more fine lamellar and fine-
grained the pearlite is, the lower the
machinability
- the presence of approximately 5%
free carbides in the matrix decreases
machinability substantially
- the effect of free carbides on
machinability is more negative in cast-
iron with a pearlitic matrix because the
pearlite “anchors” the carbide particles
in the matrix. This means that it is
necessary for the insert edge to cut
through the hardest particles instead of
Milling of cast-iron housings
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
“pulling” out or pushing into the soft
ferrite found in a ferritic matrix.
- the top of the casting can have a
somewhat lower machinability due to
impurities such as slag, casting sand
etc. which float up and concentrate in
this surface area.
Generally it can be said that: the higher
the hardness and strength a type of cast-
iron has, the lower the machinability
and the shorter the tool-life that can
be expected from inserts and tools.
Machinability of most types of cast-
iron involved in metal cutting pro-
duction is generally good. The rating
is highly related to the structure. The
harder pearlitic cast-irons are some-
what more demanding to machine
than other types. Grey cast-iron is
short chipping while malleable and
nodular cast-iron are, in principle,
long chipping. Graphite flake cast-
iron and malleable cast-iron have
excell en t ma ch ining pr o perti es,
while the properties of SG cast-iron
are not quite as good.

F
T T
Compared to unalloyed steel (1),
cutting force fluctuations vary more
but the average value is lower for grey
cast-iron (3).
The main wear types encountered
when machining cast-iron are abra-
sion, adhesion and diffusion wear.
The abrasion is produced mainly by
the carbides, sand inclusions and
harder chilled skins. Adhesion wear
with built-up edge formation takes
place at lower machining temperatures
and cutting speeds. It is the ferrite part
of cast-iron which is most easily
welded onto the tool but this can be
counteracted by increasing speed and
temperature. On the other hand,
diffusion wear is temperature related
and occurs at high cutting speeds,
especially with the higher strength
cast-iron grades. These grades have a
greater deformation resistance, leading
to higher temperatures. This type of
wear is related to the reaction between
cast-iron and tool and has led to some
cast-iron machining being carried out
at high speeds with ceramic tools,
achieving good surface texture.
Typical tool properties generally
needed to machine cast-iron are high
hot-hardness and chemical stability,
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
F
but depending upon the operation,
workpieces and machining conditions,
toughness, thermal shock resistance
and strength are also needed from the
cutting edge. Ceramic grades are used
widely to machine cast-iron along with
cemented carbide.
Obtaining satisfactory results when
machining cast-iron is dependent on
how the cutting edge wear develops.
Rapid blunting will cause premature
edge breakdown from thermal cracks
and chipping and will produce poor
results due to workpiece frittering,
p o o r s u r f a ce t e x t u r e , e x ce s s i ve
waviness, etc. Well developed flank
wear, maintaining a balanced, sharp
edge, is generally to be strived for.
Machining chilled white cast-iron is
very different due to the presence of
cementite and requires very particular
cu t t i ng edg es an d co nd i ti o n s t o
achieve satisfactory results. Rolls and
other similar components in this
material are machined with cubic
boron nitride or ceramics at very low
cutting data. Grinding had always
been the primary machining method
but efficiency has been increased
drastically with the use of modern
turning tools in stable conditions.
 High Temperature
Super Alloys
This category includes several different types
of metals: high strength alloy steel, hot-
working die steel, some stainless steels,
superalloys, refractory metals with alloys
and titanium with alloys. The types
discussed here will be limited as some of
the mentioned metals are treated
separately. Included here are:
- iron based, high temperature alloys
- nickel based, high temperature alloys
- cobalt based, high temperature alloys
Generally, high temperature alloys are
the result of metallurgical develop-ment of
established metals to achieve better
strength to weight ratios and higher
resistance to heat and corrosion effects.
Superalloys and space-age metals are
terms often associated with these alloys.
Since these materials were developed to
meet the requirements of demanding
environments, machinability is often more
problematic. Some of the alloys have low
thermal conductivity, which leads to
high cutting edge temperatures. Many
also tend to weld to certain tool
materials, giving rise to built-up edge.
Their high shear strength means higher
cutting forces and their tendency to work
harden creates higher stress, wear and
cutting forces.
F
T T
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
The heat resistant alloys maintain
strength at high temperatures and
exert high pressure on the cutting edge
even at high machining tempera-tures.
There is also the risk of the highest
temperature being generated too close to
the tip of the tool. The cutting geometries
must distribute the pressure well so that the
hottest zones are adequatly positioned on
the chip face and the edges remain sharp
while machining these often abrasive
metals. Castings and forgings have
hard, abrasive particles which add to
the machining demands and keep cutting
speeds down. Cutting force fluctuations in
value are very high for high
temperature alloys (4) compared to
unalloyed steel (1), with a much higher
average force value.
Iron based alloys are usually the least
demanding to machine and their
strength is not retained at elevated
temperatures to the same extent as
other types of alloys. Aside from the iron
base, there are larger amounts of
chromium and nickel – substantially
more than in stainless steel. Quite a few
are austenitic and strengthened by work
hardening. Regarding machining, however,
comparisons can be made to the austenitic
stainless steels. Work hardenable alloys
are usually machined advantageously after
annealing, cold-
F
 of reduction, is considerable for
HV A various materials: (A) Inconel type
400 alloy, (B) austenitic stainless steel, (C)
B Monel type alloy, (D) unalloyed steel and
(E) aluminum.
C
300
Cobalt based alloys are similar to the
nickel based alloys in structure and
D machinability. With high proportions of
200
chromium, nickel and tungsten, along
with the main cobalt constituent, very high
strengths at high tempera-tures are
100
achieved. Machinability is the poorest in
F this group of alloys with severe work-
hardening tendencies, high cutting
0
temperatures and shear strength. Only
0 50% CW moderate improvements, in regards to
machining, are achieved with aging and
drawing and stress-relieving. This type of solution treatment.
material is better to machine than the Many of the alloying elements used in
fully annealed or solution-treated, which this group of alloys make for poorer
may be too soft and become work-
hardened.

Nickel based alloys are demanding and

unforgiving to machine, causing most of
the previously discussed negative
tendencies of these materials. The
basic constituent is nickel and the
amount of nickel affects machinability
considerably. Chromium is also present in
considerable proportions, with other
elements added for strength and
resistance to corrosion. Strength is high,
even at high temperatures. The solution,
heat-treated types, are most advantageous
for machining. Not all can be heat-
treated, however, and machining is then
again comparable to austenitic stainless
steel after cold working. Hardness
variation (HV) as a function o f the
amo unt o f co ld working (CW), in this
case the amount Drilling nickel clad heat exchanger

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 machinability: tungsten, tantalum, mo-
lybdenum, niobium, boron, hafnium,
titanium, aluminum, etc. These can
increase hot hardness, strength at high
temperature and resistance to corrosion. The
cast components have greater strength
than forged ones and may be more
demanding in regards to generating a good
surface texture.
Casting skin and forging scale contain hard,
abrasive particles which may cause
notch wear along the cutting edge, at the
depth of cut. These effects limit cutting
speeds.
General points to successfully machine
these materials are:
- sharp, positive, but strong, cutting
geometries
- use sufficient feed rates and cutting
depths
- avoid excessive wear development
- use the right, specially developed
fine-grained, uncoated carbide
grade or appropriate whisker or
mixed type, ceramic grade
- apply generous amounts of coolant
and ensure unobstructed chip flow
- ensure optimum machining
conditions in machine and fixture,
especially rigidity and stability,
to avoid any vibration tendencies
- tools should be well supported, have
sufficient clearance angles and edge
strengthening for roughing,
especially interrupted cuts
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
- down-milling is recommended to
achieve the smallest chip thickness
at exit to reduce chip sticking
- allow for large chip pockets to house
the long chips generated
- ensure good tool accuracy to achieve
constant and balanced load
Refractory Metals
Refractory metals and alloys are those that
are heat resistant, retaining high strength
and melting at very high temperatures
(2200 degrees C):
- columbium (Cb) (also niobium) -
tantalum (Ta)
- molybdenum (Mo)
- tungsten (W)
Machining is generally difficult.
Hardness varies, as does thermal
conductivity, resulting in high local
machining temperatures. Some, like Cb and
Ta, are ductile, causing built-up edge and
making it difficult to achieve satisfactory
cutting data ranges. Mo and W are brittle
and unyielding. Low coefficients of
expansion for Mo and W can lead to drilling
and hole machining problems where tools
may expand more than the component.
The worked direction of the workpiece metal
should also be considered, since strength
is developed in the direction of metal flow.
The cutting load generated by a certain feed
and cutting depth in one direction may be
excessive when changing to a different,
weaker plane.
 machinability: tungsten, tantalum, mo-
lybdenum, niobium, boron, hafnium,
titanium, aluminum, etc. These can
increase hot hardness, strength at high
temperature and resistance to corrosion. The
cast components have greater strength
than forged ones and may be more
demanding in regards to generating a good
surface texture.
Casting skin and forging scale contain hard,
abrasive particles which may cause
notch wear along the cutting edge, at the
depth of cut. These effects limit cutting
speeds.
General points to successfully machine
these materials are:
- sharp, positive, but strong, cutting
geometries
- use sufficient feed rates and cutting
depths
- avoid excessive wear development
- use the right, specially developed
fine-grained, uncoated carbide
grade or appropriate whisker or
mixed type, ceramic grade
- apply generous amounts of coolant
and ensure unobstructed chip flow
- ensure optimum machining
conditions in machine and fixture,
especially rigidity and stability,
to avoid any vibration tendencies
- tools should be well supported, have
sufficient clearance angles and edge
strengthening for roughing,
especially interrupted cuts
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
- down-milling is recommended to
achieve the smallest chip thickness
at exit to reduce chip sticking
- allow for large chip pockets to house
the long chips generated
- ensure good tool accuracy to achieve
constant and balanced load
Refractory Metals
Refractory metals and alloys are those that
are heat resistant, retaining high strength
and melting at very high temperatures
(2200 degrees C):
- columbium (Cb) (also niobium) -
tantalum (Ta)
- molybdenum (Mo)
- tungsten (W)
Machining is generally difficult.
Hardness varies, as does thermal
conductivity, resulting in high local
machining temperatures. Some, like Cb and
Ta, are ductile, causing built-up edge and
making it difficult to achieve satisfactory
cutting data ranges. Mo and W are brittle
and unyielding. Low coefficients of
expansion for Mo and W can lead to drilling
and hole machining problems where tools
may expand more than the component.
The worked direction of the workpiece metal
should also be considered, since strength
is developed in the direction of metal flow.
The cutting load generated by a certain feed
and cutting depth in one direction may be
excessive when changing to a different,
weaker plane.
# 7 Which one is not a main group
of heat resistant super alloy?

A. Chromium (CR)

B. Tantalum (Ta)

C. Molybdenum (Mo)

D. Tungsten (W)
# 7 Which one is not a main group
of heat resistant super alloy?

A. Chromium (CR)

B. Tantalum (Ta)

C. Molybdenum (Mo)

D. Tungsten (W)
# 8 Which guideline should be used
when machining heat resistant
super alloys?

A. Sharp, positive

B. Sufficient clearance angles

C. Fine Grain, uncoated grade

D. All the above

# 8 Which guideline should be used
when machining heat resistant
super alloys?

A. Sharp, positive

B. Sufficient clearance angles

C. Fine Grain, uncoated grade

D. All the above

 Hard, clad component and ceramic machining
Columbium and alloys usually have
alloying elements to increase strength and
are generally intermediate in ductility and
brittleness during machining. They are
comparable in some respects to the
machining characteristics of austenitic
steels.
Like columbium, tantalum and its
alloys can cause problematic built-up edge
due to ductility. This is reduced through
alloying, but combined with strain
hardening, abrasiveness increases. Machining
becomes comparable to pure copper, where it
is difficult to generate good surface texture.
Molybdenum and its alloys are often
powder metallurgical products and
generally quite brittle. Abrasiveness,
cracks or chipping in the machined
surface are typical problems in cutting these
materials, especially since they generate
discontinuous chips.
Tungsten and its alloys are the most
refractory of this group. Strength varies, and
the structure is generally created from
wrought or powder metallurgical
manufacturing processes. Brittleness
makes machining difficult and varying
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
density may cause variations in load and
chip formation. Alloying elements usually
improve machinability, which can be
carried out at low temperatures, similar in
characteristic to grey cast-iron.
Titanium
Titanium alloys are generally divided into
three groups: alpha, alpha-beta and
beta alloys, depending upon how much of
a particular type of titanium structure is
present. Alloying elements stabilize the
alloys and modify properties.
Thermal conductivity is relatively low
with chips tending to stick to cutting edges.
The rapid oxidation process of the
machined surface results in a high tendency
to react with the tool material. Chips are thin,
with high edge temperatures, making the
correct use of coolant important.
Alloys are wrought or forged and
machined in an annealed or solution-
treated/aged condition, where strength is
increased and the component stress-
relieved. A low module of elasticity
(Young’s Modulus) means there is
deflection tendency during machining from
the load of the tool.
 Machinability is best with alpha-type alloys
and pure titanium, and becomes
progressively poorer with each of the
various types progressing from alpha to
beta. Tool demands are good abrasive wear
resistance, plastic deformation resistance,
diffusion wear resistance, toughness and
the right combination of cutting edge
strength and sharpness. Specially developed,
fine-grained, un-coated carbide grades
are the most suitable tools when used at
the correct cutting data and with plenty
of the right coolant. The right geometry
for a clear cut and good chip formation is
important for success.
Titanium work-hardens, although less than
austenitic stainless steel. Chips can become
extremely hot, hot enough to burn.
Segmented chips are produced by the
intermittent, digging, cutting action
which can lead to cutting edge chipping.
There may also be tendencies for smearing,
leading to built-up edge, especially on a
worn edge with alloys.
Slot milling of titanium
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
It is useful to strive towards reducing both
the temperature at the cutting edge point
and the higher coefficient of friction in
titanium using the mentioned methods. The
machining of titanium and its alloys
should not be difficult if the right conditions
and stability prevail. General machining
points:
- use sharp, positive cutting
edges with ample clearance
- machine under stable
conditions,
with well-clamped workpieces
- optimize the feed rate
- apply copious amounts of coolant
correctly for the operation and
cutting data in question
- limit wear development to prevent
heat generation
- minimize vibration tendencies,
espcially during boring and
milling - use down-milling and
correct cutter
positioning
Aluminum
Most aluminum that is subjected to
metal cutting is in the form of an
alloy. Pure aluminum has limited uses since
it is a relatively weak, ductile metal.
The properties of aluminum and its
alloys depend to a large extent upon how it
has been pre-worked. Aluminum alloys
are usually divided into wrought and cast
alloys. There are also groups of heat and
non-heat treatable and strain-hardenable.
The main alloying elements are copper,
manganese, silicon, magnesium, zinc and
iron. These have various effects on the
alloy: copper increases strength and
improves machinability, manga-nese
improves ductility and castability, silicon
improves corrosion resistance and
castability, magnesium improves
 strength and corrosion resistance, zinc
improves strength and castability and iron
increases strength and hardness.
Cast alloys may be heat treatable or non-
heat treatable, as well as die cast or sand cast.
Depending upon the casting processes and
desired properties, the alloy has various
elements. Silicon is a key element for
affecting fluidity, where the eutectic
for the alloy is achieved at an 11.6%
silicon content. Alloys at or close to this
composition solidify with little or no
temperature changes. This makes the
eutectic or over-eutectic alloys very
suitable for high production rate
casting. The structure of these alloys is
further improved with the addition of
other elements and the eutectic
composition can change to have a higher
silicon content. These are usually ‘as-
cast’ aluminum alloys, with no heat treat-
ment. The addition of copper means that
the cast alloy can be heat treated, or subjected
to other treatments, i.e. stress-relieving,
precipitation, solution, etc.
Wrought aluminum alloys are mainly
heat and non-heat treated. Age and
strain hardening with solution and pre-
cipitation treatments are methods used
widely to improve properties and create
stronger, harder materials. Aluminum/
copper alloys are widely-used, non-heat
treated types.
Aluminum alloys have good machina-bility
properties. Machining tempera-tures are
generally low and high cutting speeds can be
used. Chip control may require special
measures in some machining operations. The
cutting action needs a sharp, positive cutting
edge and
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
is usually carried out with tools specially
designed for aluminum. However, many
modern, general purpose tools will also
machine several aluminum alloys
satisfactorily. A large rake angle is
generally required to ensure the
correct shearing action and to reduce any
built-up edge tendency.
Consistently good machinability is based
on tool-life, surface texture and chip
formation. Cutting forces are kept low.
Wrought and cast alloys machine better in
tempered heat-treated conditions than in
annealed. The solution heat-treated and
aged alloys can often machine
exceptionally well. For some alloys, built-up
edge formation can occur even at relatively
high cutting speeds, causing poor surface
texture, especially with cutting edges not
specifically designed to cut aluminum.
Chip control is one main concern when
machining aluminum. Some chips do not
break easily and at high speeds, steps must
be taken to maintain good chip evacuation.
Aluminum turning is rated as relatively
undemanding
 strength and corrosion resistance, zinc
improves strength and castability and iron
increases strength and hardness.
Cast alloys may be heat treatable or non-
heat treatable, as well as die cast or sand cast.
Depending upon the casting processes and
desired properties, the alloy has various
elements. Silicon is a key element for
affecting fluidity, where the eutectic
for the alloy is achieved at an 11.6%
silicon content. Alloys at or close to this
composition solidify with little or no
temperature changes. This makes the
eutectic or over-eutectic alloys very
suitable for high production rate
casting. The structure of these alloys is
further improved with the addition of
other elements and the eutectic
composition can change to have a higher
silicon content. These are usually ‘as-
cast’ aluminum alloys, with no heat treat-
ment. The addition of copper means that
the cast alloy can be heat treated, or subjected
to other treatments, i.e. stress-relieving,
precipitation, solution, etc.
Wrought aluminum alloys are mainly heat
and non-heat treated. Age and strain
hardening with solution and pre-cipitation
treatments are methods used widely to
improve properties and create stronger,
harder materials. Aluminum/ copper alloys
are widely-used, non-heat treated types.
Aluminum alloys have good machina-bility
properties. Machining tempera-tures are
generally low and high cutting speeds can be
used. Chip control may require special
measures in some machining operations. The
cutting action needs a sharp, positive cutting
edge and
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
is usually carried out with tools specially
designed for aluminum. However, many
modern, general purpose tools will also
machine several aluminum alloys
satisfactorily. A large rake angle is
generally required to ensure the
correct shearing action and to reduce any
built-up edge tendency.
Consistently good machinability is based
on tool-life, surface texture and chip
formation. Cutting forces are kept low.
Wrought and cast alloys machine better in
tempered heat-treated conditions than in
annealed. The solution heat-treated and
aged alloys can often machine
exceptionally well. For some alloys, built-up
edge formation can occur even at relatively
high cutting speeds, causing poor surface
texture, especially with cutting edges not
specifically designed to cut aluminum.
Chip control is one main concern when
machining aluminum. Some chips do not
break easily and at high speeds, steps must
be taken to maintain good chip evacuation.
Aluminum turning is rated as relatively
undemanding
 # 9 What feature should a tool
cutting aluminum have?

A. Sharp high positive insert

B. Large rake angle to ensure shearing action.

C. PCD tipped and alternative

D. All the above

 # 9 What feature should a tool
cutting aluminum have?

A. Sharp high positive insert

B. Large rake angle to ensure shearing action.

C. PCD tipped and alternative

D. All the above

 Excessive flank wear is a matter of
concern for some silicon-content alloys with
eutectic and over-eutectic compo-sitions.
Large, hard particles of silicon create high
tool wear rates. The use of diamond tipped
and diamond coated cutting edges has
been developed for machining these
alloys. Very high cutting speeds are
effective in this area, and high metal
removal rates can be obtained in machine
tools with capacities for high spindle speeds.
Cutting speeds are usually limited by the
machine. Sharp, uncoated cemented
carbide grades have been specially
developed for this material, giving
excellent performance for machining
most aluminum alloys. Trepanning of extruded nickel alloy billets

Chip thickness is also important in milling
aluminum. When high cutting speeds are used,
the feed rate often tends to be low, causing
excessive rubbing, instead of cutting. Poor
tool life due to over-heating and
discoloration is the result.
alloys and are high temperature alloys for
aerospace and other demanding
environments. There are cast and
wrought alloys. Annealing, solution
treatment, precipitation and stress-
relieving occurs in these groups.

Nickel Generally, nickel alloys are demanding to

Nickel is used extensively as an
alloying element but is also the basis for
several nickel alloys with high
strength, corrosion and temperature
resistance. In its pure form, it is strong, can
be hot and cold worked and has
moderate, good machining properties. A
common application is cladding on steel.
There are also annealed and cold-drawn
types of nickel.
There are three main groups of nickel
alloys: nickel/copper, nickel/chromium/ iron
and nickel/titanium. Most nickel alloys are
identified by trade names: Inco, Monel,
Inconel, Incoloy, Nimonic, Nimocast,
Hastelloy, Nilo, Waspoloy, Astraloy, René,
etc. Several are complex
machine. High cutting temperatures are
generated and the combination of heat and
load causes deformation wear. Cutting
speeds are relatively low. Some of the
nickel alloys are among the most demanding
to machine, requiring the right carbide or
ceramic tools and conditions for
satisfactory results.
Nickel alloys have an austenitic matrix and
like austenitic stainless steels, work-harden
rapidly. The high pressure developed
between tool and workpiece during cutting
produces a stressed layer of deformed metal
on the surface of the workpiece. The
deformation causes a hardening effect
that retards further machining.

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Boring of light-alloy part in a machining center

One method o f r ed ucing wo r k- magnesium/zirconium/etc. for cast and

hardening during machining is to work- wrought forms. Solution and precipi-tation
harden the material prior to machining by treatments are carried out.
cold working. The best finish is
produced on age-hardenable alloys by Magnesium is very easy to machine. Its
machining them in the aged condition. alloys are probably the best from a
However, rough machining is often done machinability point of view. Low
before age-hardening. Also, solution hardness, low cutting forces, low shear
annealing usually improves machina-bility. strength, etc. all mean that machining is
The degree of work-hardening on some successful over a wide application area
metals can be indicated by the effect of and high speeds. Chip formation is
cold reduction on hardness. advantageous. There is, however, a fire
risk involved when machining
In addition, carefully choosing tools that magnesium, as chips can easily ignite.
machine with minimum pushing is
essential. Cutting data and a sharp edge
must be correctly adapted to prevent Copper
burnishing on the workpiece and Copper alloys such as brass and bronze are
rubbing on the surface or in the cut itself. often shaped through metal cutting.
Machinability ranges from easy to
demanding. Pure copper is very
Magnesium ductile and malleable with high
Magnesium alloys have an advantageous thermal conductivity.
strength-to-weight ratio and good
machinability properties. There are Brass is a copper based alloy with large
wrought and cast types and three main amounts of zinc and small amounts of
groups of alloys: magnesium/manga-nese other elements. There are cast and
for wrought forms, magnesium/ wrought forms, and hot or cold worked
aluminum/zinc for cast forms and forms. Properties vary from brittle to

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 high-tensile types. Lead is added to pure as well as for alloying. The pure metal
considerably improve machinability, is ductile and malleable and is usually
making free-cutting brass. wrought and cold-worked. It is chemically a
very reactive metal but also very resistant to
Bronzes are also available as wrought or corrosion. Machin-ability is
cast. There are several bronzes: tin bronze, comparable to that of titanium. There
aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, are several zirconium alloys. Machining
phosphor bronzes, beryllium bronzes, etc. zirconium involves the risk of chips
Machinability varies but most are quite igniting.
good, especially the leaded bronzes.
Aluminum, silicon, beryllium and
phosphor bronzes can be more Composites
demanding to machine. The development and use of composite
metal-matrix materials is relatively new.
Copper/nickel alloys (cupro-nickels) can These constructional materials have
also require some effort to achieve optimum very high strength-to-weight ratios and
machining performance. This is the same are used widely in strength demanding
for some nickel-silvers, where zinc is applications. In a broad sense,
also included in the alloy of copper and composites can be segmented into three
nickel. types: fiber-reinforced, particle-
reinforced and dispersion strengthened.
Added to these are various laminated
Zinc materials. The materials in this group
Of the zinc alloys, it is normally the cast used for metal cutting are fiber-reinforced
forms that are machined. Alloyed with plastics, a heterogeneous structure of
aluminum, copper, magnesium, etc., zinc fibers embedded in a continuous matrix.
makes very light metal alloys with The fibers are designed so as to take up
reasonable strength. Precipitation hardening load and provide stiffness. The matrix has
can be carried out to further strengthen the to form a protective body and surface.
alloys. Machinability is not demanding. It also must disperse fibers suitably so
that the matrix joins with the fibers,
Uranium allowing the load to be transmitted to the
Uranium is a heavy, but relatively fibers when applied.
ductile and malleable, cast or wrought Composites for machining applications
metal. Chemically it is similar to tung-sten usually contain fibers of carbon, glass or
with the formation of hard, stable carbides. aramid, matrixed in an organic
(Attempts have even been made to use it polymer, epoxy or phenolic resin.
as cutting tool material.) Monolithic structures are woven or uni-
directional. Sandwich structures are
Zirconium monolithics, bridged by a honey-comb
Zirconium plays an important role as filament, made of aramid or aluminum.
an alloying element but is also used

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Carbon and graphite fibers hold In the case of graphite the stiffness in one
together in long, polymer structures, plane can be almost 30 times more than it
similar to the way strong bonds in is in another, because the atomic
diamond and graphite are formed. bonds in one plane are very strong and
They are thermally stable, strong at high relatively weak in the other. In a normal
temperatures and retain stiffness. sample of graphite, the crystals will be
oriented randomly whereas in fiber
The structure of the thin fibers used in form, the stronger bonds will be aligned
these materials makes them far so as to fiber the weaker, largely transverse
stronger than the same materials in solid plane.
form. They are also relatively stiff. By
combining the fibers with an elastic matrix, Composites are demanding to machine,
one obtains an artificial material that requiring a selective approach to choose
has properties of the two materials. When suitable cutting tools. Most machining
a composite material is exposed to a operations performed are drilling,
stretching force, the matrix material will endmilling and related operations.
elongate more than the fibrous
material, etc. The stiffness of a given Carbon fiber composites are highly
material may also vary considerably abrasive while woven, aramid fiber
according to how it is measured in relation to composites are soft and ductile, and give
the atomic and crystalline structure. way to tool pressure. Like metals,
composites have different machining

Composite machining characteristics and a typical sandwich structured part

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 1 2 3 4
A
B
C
D
Application of tools for composites
characteristics. The type of fiber and
matrix and the fiber content ratio to the
matrix are important factors in
machinability. Laminated materials often de-
laminate and break away at the cutting
edges – especially the dryer, abrasive
types. Dust and coolants can also create
problems during machining.
In the manufacture of composites, the
various fiber materials are in the form of
large rolls with a protecting film
between layers. The fibers can be in
directionless or woven form, pre-coated with
hardener. The fiber direction can be
varied to give the best mechanical
properties in the final product. The fiber
materials, a metal net and absorption
material are placed under the vacuum in an
autoclave where the excess epoxy
material runs down and is absorbed.
A typical structure involves the use of
carbon fiber for the outer surfaces and a
honeycomb material in the middle. The
honeycomb material is strong and relatively
stiff in the direction of the cells but
considerably weaker and more
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
5 6 7 8 9
flexible in other directions. The honey-comb
is normally produced in aramid or
aluminum materials. For example, the
carbon fiber/honeycomb sandwich need
only be 25% thicker than the pure
carbon fiber material to obtain the same
stiffness with one-third the weight, a
reduction that brings the weight to less than
ten percent of the weight of steel.
Examples of various tool types and their
suitability for composites are
indicated in the adjoining table: (A)
is carbon fiber, (B) glass fiber, (C) aramid
fiber and (D) aramid, sandwich section.
The tool range includes: (1) phi-drill, (2)
gamma-drill, (3) special twist drill, (4)
Delta-drill, (5) serrated router, (6)
straight router, (7) PCO router, (8)
indexable insert trespanning tool and (9)
drill and counter sink.
Composites should be cut cleanly, with
a sharp cutting edge. Excessive edge
wear will mean that fibers will be
broken away, rather than cut, leading to
de-lamination. Very fine grained cemented
carbide and PCD are used for cutting
 preventing excessive cutting that can
1 cause de-lamination or fiber breakout.
When machining carbon fiber com-
2 posites, tool-life is directly propor-
tional to cutting speed – high
speed/short tool-life, low speed/long
tool-life. When machining aramid fiber
composites, high cutting speeds can be
used to advantage, but feed rates must
3 (p be set accurately. Glass fiber composites
compare to carbon fiber composites in
regards to machinability. A higher
content of fibers will mean more
demanding machining. It is important
to consider not only the type of
Example of drill for composites composite but also fiber/matrix ratio.
composites. The right geometry with a Conventional twist-drill-type tools are
sharp edge in these tool materials suitable for cutting some composite
reduces tool pressure, leading to cleaner,materials (carbon fiber and glass fiber)
more accurate cuts. For aramid fiber while for others (aramids), specially
composites, tools are designed to first designed drills are needed to cut cleanly
lightly pre-load tye fibers, then cut themwithout damage to hole walls. An
cleanly, and finally hook them out from example of a specially designed cutting
the machining area to minimize chip tool for composite machining is the phi
jamming. drill, especially suitable for thicker,
demanding materials. Made of cemented
The right cutting data is essential when carbide, it has three cutting edges: longer
machining composites. The feed per edges (1) and (2) that pre-tension the
tooth is important to establish correctly fibers and cut them while radial cutting
so as to avoid tool rubbing while edge (3), below (1), cleans up the cut.

Some conventional tools can be used for composite machining

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 preventing excessive cutting that can
1 cause de-lamination or fiber breakout.
When machining carbon fiber com-
2 posites, tool-life is directly propor-
tional to cutting speed – high
speed/short tool-life, low speed/long
tool-life. When machining aramid fiber
composites, high cutting speeds can be
used to advantage, but feed rates must
3 (p be set accurately. Glass fiber composites
compare to carbon fiber composites in
regards to machinability. A higher
content of fibers will mean more
demanding machining. It is important
to consider not only the type of
Example of drill for composites composite but also fiber/matrix ratio.
composites. The right geometry with a Conventional twist-drill-type tools are
sharp edge in these tool materials suitable for cutting some composite
reduces tool pressure, leading to cleaner,materials (carbon fiber and glass fiber)
more accurate cuts. For aramid fiber while for others (aramids), specially
composites, tools are designed to first designed drills are needed to cut cleanly
lightly pre-load tye fibers, then cut themwithout damage to hole walls. An
cleanly, and finally hook them out from example of a specially designed cutting
the machining area to minimize chip tool for composite machining is the phi
jamming. drill, especially suitable for thicker,
demanding materials. Made of cemented
The right cutting data is essential when carbide, it has three cutting edges: longer
machining composites. The feed per edges (1) and (2) that pre-tension the
tooth is important to establish correctly fibers and cut them while radial cutting
so as to avoid tool rubbing while edge (3), below (1), cleans up the cut.

Some conventional tools can be used for composite machining

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

# 10 Which statement is correct
when machining carbon fiber
composites?

A. Surface feet up, tool life

B. Surface feet, up tool life short.

C. Surface feet down, tool life short

D. None of the above

# 10 Which statement is correct
when machining carbon fiber
composites?

A. Surface feet up, tool life

B. Surface feet, up tool life short.

C. Surface feet down, tool life short

D. None of the above

 Chip analysis often indicates the state of the machining

MACHINABILITY EVALUATION
- TWO EXAMPLES
As mentioned in the introduction, the different types of materials are
machinability is not a universally defined included. The tests also provide
property. Knowledge of the workpiece separate values for different machining
material, operational parameters and operations: turning, milling and drilling as
machining conditions for various machinability assessments vary, even if the
applications is essential for establishing material is the same.
informative machinability values. The
following describes examples of estab- Instead of longitudinal turning, the
lishing machinability ratings, one from a Sandvik Steel tool-life test is based on a face
material supplier and one from a turning operation. With face turning, the
manufacturing company. effect of factors such as hardness profile
are lessened. Besides machining parameters
The steel research center of Sandvik Steel and work material, the cutting time also
has developed testing technology for affects the tool-life. If facing is carried out
evaluating machinability properties. The in one operation, from surface to core, the
principle behind these tests and the cutting time will depend on the diameter.
resulting data charts for the stain-less Conse-quently, tool-life will depend
steel supplied by the company, is that the on diameter, even if the material is homo-
assessments should be similar to, and geneous. To make the test independent of
thus useful to, the machine shops using the diameter, the bar is face turned in several
the material from the company. face operations. The cutting time and
removed material are the same for each
T h e m a c h i n i n g t e s t s t a k e i n t o operation since both of these factors
consideration that the material is not depend on the cutting speed and feed. The
homogeneous and that the latest cutting tools effect of the idle time compared with
are used. The establishment of starting the cutting time is less and in these tool-
values, information on changes if problems life tests the idle time is fixed.
arise and descriptions about

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 To make the tool-life test more precise,
the face turning operation is combined
with a copying operation. In operation
1, the cutting depth is decreased from
.12 in. down to .04 in. In operation 2 ,
the cutting depth is increased from .04
in. to .12 in. The work material is fixed
between a chuck and a center. A core,
not less than 1.18 in. is used to avoid
vibrations.
T he ma chi nin g test is b a se d o n a
turning operation. The results should
therefore be used mainly for turning.
Compared with the international ISO
standard test, the Sandvik Steel test is
more production oriented, taking into
V1 = V 2 = V 3
V1
V2 ID1 OD1 ID3 OD3
ID2
OD2
V3
Details of machinability test
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
consideration the fact that the work
material is not homogeneous. It is not
necessary to calculate an average tool-
life and in fact, it is normally enough to
choose only two cutting speeds for the
evaluation of the tool-life value. To
verify the tool-life value, the test is
always done a third time using the
evaluated tool-life value.
In the international standard, certain
items are standardized, such as the
tool geometries and cutting conditions.
With such a test one can compare
results from different sources. But even
if the tool is specified it is important to
note that the ISO grade-coding system
12
1
80°
5°
21
OD1
ID1 4
1
 Vc
Application area limited by various tool-lives
is not actually a system to identify the
grade. Instead it identifies the applica-tion.
The ISO code for a specific grade is the
manufacturer’s recommendation as to
which application area the grade is suited.
It does not standardize the carbide and
coating grade.
It is desirable for the material to have high
and consistent machinability properties
from one batch to the next so as to ensure
a reliable production without
interruptions caused by poor machinability.
Consistent machinability properties are
especially important when the production
batches are long, because in reality, cutting
data must be based on the lowest level of
machin-ability. Normally, the term
machin-ability only refers to the tool-life.
From the machine shop point of view, chip-
breaking and surface finish are of equal
importance. Therefore, in addition to the
tool-life test, the Sandvik Steel
machining test also includes a chip-
breaking and a surface finish test.
In laboratory tests, the most common tool-
life criterion is flank wear. In machine
shops, tool-life is often measured in
terms of the number of components
produced per edge and
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
T= 7min
T= 10min
flank wear is seldom a reason to stop
machining. Machining charts map areas that
give at least 10 minutes tool-life. For some
difficult materials, where it is impossible to
achieve 10 minutes tool-life, tool-life is
stated separately on the machining chart.
Machining charts are excellent for
comparing machinability of different steel
material grades. Through a study of the
area with acceptable cutting data, the
way in which the machinability varies, and
to what extent, becomes apparent. Some
duplex steels have a very small area
where the cutting data is acceptable.
The example involving manufacturing
company machinability-tests views
machinability criteria as links in a chain. Each
link is defined according to specific properties
and expressed in objectively measured
units, which can be set in relation to
each other. The aim is to always express
the highest possible cutting data for a
given application. Effort is then made
to strengthen the weak links in the
chain under various circumstances.
Systemization and quantifying properties
are import-ant aspects of the strengthening
work.
 Machinability in this example is seen as
being made up of five criteria:
A. wear resistance
B. specific cutting force
C. chipbreaking
D. built-up edge formation
E. tool coating character
E
Machinability test factors
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
The wear resistance is measured and
expressed as a so-called ‘B index’. This is a
defined unit, used as a standard. One
specific cutting edge is used to cut
material during which all factors except the
cutting speed are kept constant. A
predetermined flank wear is reached The
time taken to reach the flank wear
establishes the B index, used to classify
B
 the cutting edge. Values on the B index are rating and is inversely related to the way
given to materials for specific cutting speeds. the material generates tool wear. This
These are selected to represent good to rating is then used, by way of a factor, to
poor cutting conditions by numerical establish the best cutting speeds for
values. The closer the value is to 100, the production. Since the B index is directly
better the machinability. The figure related to machining costs, the cost of
shows this principle for various machining can also be analyzed, using a
materials or material condi-tions, e.g.: given factor, as can the choice of
B1:40 and B2:50; for a certain flank workpiece materials.
wear; etc. The various material
conditions can be compared along the B This is visualized in the machining cost/ B
index line. The removed volume of index graph where the vertical axis
material (V) is measured at various speeds. represents the percentage of machining cost
savings (C-) or cost increases (C+). The
The specific cutting force of the work-piece horizontal axis is the percentage change in
material is vital for establishing the power B index. For a certain machine (M a), the
requirements of the machine tools. There is change in B index from a material rated at
little connection between wear resistance 55 to one at 40 means a change of 37.5%.
and specific cutting force. Consider, for This then leads to a savings of 36% in
example, a plastic material which can give machining costs.
rise to consider-able tool wear with low
cutting resist-ance and small ks values. In addition, chipbreaking is systemized
according to conventional diagrams of feed
The metal cutting tests lead to pre- and cutting depth in relation to each
determined tool wear criteria once the way other. The total machinability
in which the material causes tool wear is assessment aims toward a wider scope that
assessed with that of a standard material. includes the tool wear test as well as
The B index is the material communications regarding machine tools,
economic consequences and a dialogue
with material suppliers.

C-
V Ma
in3 36%
3.67

3.06
B = 55 0 B%
2.45 2 - 30 20 0 20 40 +
1.84
B 1 = 40
1.22 B = 37%
.61

B 1 = 55
= 37%
B 2 = 40
vc ft/min C+

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Tool and die making involves a lot of metal cutting which can be performed very
efficiently with modern tools
MACHINABILITY OF TOOL,
DIE AND MOLD MATERIALS
Metalworking accounts for a large
portion of the cost of components in this
field. The demands made on tools, dies and
molds are often so severe that the material
properties relative to the function of the
tool, die or mold have to be a strict priority.
Machinability has been improved,
however, along with material production
technology and the capability of cutting
tools. Efficient machining is increasingly
being seen as a competitive advantage
and quality enhancer. The following
examples of tool, die and mold demands are
shown with typical requirements for
material properties and the
consequences of these in regards to
machinability:
- High impact strength/High material
purity – poor chipbreaking
- High wear resistance/Lots of hard
inclusions – short tool-life
- No subsequent hardening/High
hardness level – short tool-life
II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING
CMC/Tool, die and mold materials
03/ Die steel
02/ Alloy tool steel
01.2/ Medium carbon steel
02.1/ Cr-Mo steel
06.1/ Carbon steel casting
01.4/ Carbon tool steel
03/ High speed steel
05.1/ Stainless steel
08/ Grey cast-iron
Tools for forming by way of cold and hot
working and casting are generally made
specifically with well-defined values of
property, shape, accuracy, finish, costs and
working life. There are many different
grades, divided into groups by application,
where hardness, strength and alloying
elements mean considerable variation in
machinability.
By determining machinability, criteria is given
and a choice can be made to use alternative
grades of materials. Because of the
extensive machining involved on tools,
dies and molds, this has a
 considerable influence on production - hardness
costs. The type of machining and tools also - surface hardness
influence the machinability rating. However, - amount and type of inclusions
machinability is not a straight-forward - toughness
description so some of the more significant - hot hardness
properties have to be established: - work hardening
- strength
The same material type can vary from - structure homogenity
supplier to supplier and may have very - type and amount of alloying
different machinability. This necessitates more elements
precise information and tests. - heat treatment
- material structure
Hardness of materials directly affects - chemical analysis
machinability, as is illustrated in the two - residual tension in material
diagrams supplied by a major material
supplier within this field. (A) represents the Diagrams (1) and (2) on the following page
carbon content influence and (B) is the indicate the difference in machin-ability
amount of hard and abrasive using cemented carbide tools chosen from
inclusions present in materials that are a broad range of frequently used tool, die
classified as having relatively low and mold steel grades (from Uddeholm
proportions of inclusions. (C) denotes Tooling). The diagrams show typical cutting
groups of materials classified as speeds for turning (1) and milling (2) to
having high proportions of inclusions. achieve a certain tool-life with the same
type of cutting tool. The diagrams show the
Typical properties of tool, die and mold consider-able variations that can occur even
materials which affect machinability and in a single aspect of machinability. Examples
which should be analyzed for the metal of die and mold materials and typically
cutting application are: suitable cutting speeds follow.

VcVc
ft/min ft/min
985 985
A
660 660
B
330 330 C

0.2 0.6 1.0 %C 200 300 400 HB

Carbon and hardness influence on machinability

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING

 1

ELMAX HB 250 52
VANADIS 4 HB 225 71
SVERKER 3 HB 240 75
ASP 23 HB 260 82
ALEX HB 350 98
SVERKER 21 HB 210 103
TOUGHTEM HB 350 107
UHB 20 HB 170 125
RIGOR HB 215 129
RAMAX S HB 350 129
IMPAX SUP HB 300
140
CARMO HB 280
HOLDAX HB 290
167
GRANE HB 230
180
FERMO HB 250 192
GRANAX HB 190 195
ARNE HB 190 196
CHIPPER HB 200 202
ALVAR 14 HB 200 205
STAVAX ESR HB 215 207
QRO 90 SUP HB 180 208
ORVAR SUP HB 180 250
UHB 11 HB 200 260
FORMAX HB 150 289
332

0 165 330 490 660 820 980 1150

Vc ft/min
2

ELMAX HB 250 110

ALEX HB 350 110
SVERKER 3 HB 240 130
ASP 23 HB 260 143
IMPAX SUP HB 300 155
SVERKER 21 HB 210 185
TOUGHTEM HB 350 190
HOLDAX HB 290 200
RAMAX S HB 340
220
RIGOR HB 240
240
CHIPPER HB 200
250
CARMO HB 280
250
ARNE HB 190
ORVAR SUP HB 190
290
UHB 11 HB 200 310
STAVAX ESR HB 215 320
320
QRO 90 SUP HB 180
FORMAX HB 150 340
440

0 165 330 490 660 820 980 1150 1300 1476 1640
Vc ft/min
Machinability of tool and die materials

II-50MODERN METAL CUTTING


Properties of
main alloying elements:
Aluminum can give rise to demanding
chip control in machining of nitriding
steels. It forms hard nitrides on contact
with nitrogen at high temperatures,
producing a very hard surface.
Beryllium is toxic, hence the metal and
its alloys are hazardous to machine. It
is used to harden copper alloys and
improve their springiness.
Boron used in very small quantities
increases hardness, which can make
machining difficult.
Carbon facilitates hardening and forms
hard carbides with iron, chromium and
vanadium, thus increasing strength
and wear resistance.
Chromium’s presence in a material
reduces the machinability. Generally
MODERN METAL CUTTING
Large con-rods in alloyed
steel machined extensively
added to increase strength, it also
promotes hardening and increases
wear resistance.
Cobalt is used in a variety of different
alloys such as high-strength steels and
heat-resistant superalloys as well as in
magnets to increase residual magne-
tism. It maintains hard carbides at high
temperatures and thus preserves the
hardness of the alloy during machining.
Copper is used primarily in production
of brass and bronzes. The machining
properties vary widely, depending on
what element is used as the second
major constituent and the ratio in which
the two are present.
Lead in small quantities produces free
machining characteristics, especially at
low cutting speeds, below 200 ft/min.
II-51

Properties of
main alloying elements:
Aluminum can give rise to demanding
chip control in machining of nitriding
steels. It forms hard nitrides on contact
with nitrogen at high temperatures,
producing a very hard surface.
Beryllium is toxic, hence the metal and
its alloys are hazardous to machine. It
is used to harden copper alloys and
improve their springiness.
Boron used in very small quantities
increases hardness, which can make
machining difficult.
Carbon facilitates hardening and forms
hard carbides with iron, chromium and
vanadium, thus increasing strength
and wear resistance.
Chromium’s presence in a material
reduces the machinability. Generally
MODERN METAL CUTTING
Large con-rods in alloyed
steel machined extensively
added to increase strength, it also
promotes hardening and increases
wear resistance.
Cobalt is used in a variety of different
alloys such as high-strength steels and
heat-resistant superalloys as well as in
magnets to increase residual magne-
tism. It maintains hard carbides at high
temperatures and thus preserves the
hardness of the alloy during machining.
Copper is used primarily in production
of brass and bronzes. The machining
properties vary widely, depending on
what element is used as the second
major constituent and the ratio in which
the two are present.
Lead in small quantities produces free
machining characteristics, especially at
low cutting speeds, below 200 ft/min.
II-51
 # 11 Boron as a alloying
element?

A. Used primarily in the production of brass &

bronze.

B. Increases hardness

C. Is a hazard to machine

D. All the above

 # 11 Boron as a alloying
element?

A. Used primarily in the production of brass &

bronze.

B. Increases hardness

C. Is a hazard to machine

D. All the above

# 13 Copper as an alloying element?

A. Used primarily in the production of brass &

bronze.

B. Increases hardness

C. Is a hazard to machine

D. All the above

# 13 Copper as an alloying element?

A. Used primarily in the production of

brass & bronze.

B. Increases hardness

C. Is a hazard to machine

D. All the above

 Magnesium is used to produce a wide
range of extremely light-weight alloys
when great strength, toughness, or
thermal conductivity and good shock
resistance are required. Machinability
is generally excellent, but machining
is hazardous on account of the risk of
spontaneous ignition or explosion.
Manganese with high Mn-content
is non-magnetic and readily work-
hardened. Edge reinforcement is usually
necessary to prevent damage to the
cutting edge of the tool. Chip welding
occurs as wear patterns develop.
Molybdenum increases hardness of
steels and improves resistance to
corrosion and creep.
Nickel increases hardness and strength
and at the same time reduces machin-
ability. It generally has high corrosion
resistance; some alloys with chromium
are very heat-resistant. Nickel alloys
are sticky and cause edge build up
and notch wear, which become worse
as the nickel content rises.
Cast engine block for compressor
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-53
Niobium provides strength and excellent
corrosion resistance. Machinability is
satisfactory at slow operating speeds.
Silicon shortens tool-life considerably
when present in large amounts, but it
can produce effective chip control.
Sulphur is used to improved free
cutting properties, but it reduces
corrosion resistance.
The uses and properties of tantalum
are similar to those of niobium.
Tin has a primary use as an alloying
element in the production of bronze
and bearing metals where its self-
lubricating properties are utilized.
While the machinability of copper-tin
bronzes is generally excellent, the
other tin alloys present problems on
account of their softness.
Titanium when alloyed with aluminum,
manganese, tin or vanadium, makes
light-weight alloys with great strength
and excellent corrosion resistance. It
is often used in pure form. Machinability
is fairly poor due to edge build-up and
tool-life is short. (Spontaneous ignition
of dust may occur.)
Tungsten is primarily used as an
alloying element for steel to improve
hardness, and in the production of
refractory metal components.
Vanadium is used together with
chromium to give a good edge to
steel and is generally used to increase
strength and toughness.
Zinc is widely used for low-strength,
low-cost alloys that are cast or wrought.
Easily machined with cutting tools.
 Magnesium is used to produce a wide
range of extremely light-weight alloys
when great strength, toughness, or
thermal conductivity and good shock
resistance are required. Machinability
is generally excellent, but machining
is hazardous on account of the risk of
spontaneous ignition or explosion.
Manganese with high Mn-content
is non-magnetic and readily work-
hardened. Edge reinforcement is usually
necessary to prevent damage to the
cutting edge of the tool. Chip welding
occurs as wear patterns develop.
Molybdenum increases hardness of
steels and improves resistance to
corrosion and creep.
Nickel increases hardness and strength
and at the same time reduces machin-
ability. It generally has high corrosion
resistance; some alloys with chromium
are very heat-resistant. Nickel alloys
are sticky and cause edge build up
and notch wear, which become worse
as the nickel content rises.
Cast engine block for compressor
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-53
Niobium provides strength and excellent
corrosion resistance. Machinability is
satisfactory at slow operating speeds.
Silicon shortens tool-life considerably
when present in large amounts, but it
can produce effective chip control.
Sulphur is used to improved free
cutting properties, but it reduces
corrosion resistance.
The uses and properties of tantalum
are similar to those of niobium.
Tin has a primary use as an alloying
element in the production of bronze
and bearing metals where its self-
lubricating properties are utilized.
While the machinability of copper-tin
bronzes is generally excellent, the
other tin alloys present problems on
account of their softness.
Titanium when alloyed with aluminum,
manganese, tin or vanadium, makes
light-weight alloys with great strength
and excellent corrosion resistance. It
is often used in pure form. Machinability
is fairly poor due to edge build-up and
tool-life is short. (Spontaneous ignition
of dust may occur.)
Tungsten is primarily used as an
alloying element for steel to improve
hardness, and in the production of
refractory metal components.
Vanadium is used together with
chromium to give a good edge to
steel and is generally used to increase
strength and toughness.
Zinc is widely used for low-strength,
low-cost alloys that are cast or wrought.
Easily machined with cutting tools.
# 12 Magnesium as a alloying
element?

A. Used primarily in the production of brass

& bronze.

B. Increases hardness

C. Is a hazard to machine

D. All the above.

# 12 Magnesium as a alloying
element?

A. Used primarily in the production of brass

& bronze.

B. Increases hardness

C. Is a hazard to machine (very

flammable)

D. All the above.


Workpiece
Materials – Classification
This is a listing of the more frequently
occurring workpiece materials divided
into machining groups by CMC code,
(Coromant Material Classification). Each
main group is sub-divided into more
precise descriptions of materials with
typical hardness/strength values.
CMC code, Material, typical Hardness
(HB) /Strength values, (lbs/in2 x 1000):
01 Unalloyed steel
01.0 Non-hardened, 0.05-0.10% C
125/290
.1 0.10-0.25 125/290
.2 0.25-0.55 150/304
.3 0.55-0.80 200/300
.4 High-carbon, annealed 210/336
.5 Hardened and tempered
300/368
02 Low alloy steel
(less than 5% all. elem.)
02.1 Non-hardened 175/304
.2 Hardened and tempered
275/377
03 High alloy steel
(more than 5% all. elem.)
03.11 Annealed 200/360
.13 Annealed HSS 200/400
.21 Hardened tool steel 325/570
.22 Hardened steel, others 325/540
MODERN METAL CUTTING II-53
04 Extra hard steel 55 HRC/681
05 Stainless steel
.1 Ferritic, Martensitic 13-25% Cr
200/333
.2 Austenitic 18-25% Cr, +8% Ni
180/355
.3 Quenitemp. Martensitic +0.12%
C 330/406
.4 Precip. hard. steel 330/508
.51 Aust. – Ferrit. (Duplex) 230/377
.52 Aust. – Ferrit., low S (Duplex)
260/435
06 Steel castings
06.1 Unalloyed 180/290
.2 Low-alloyed (less than 5% all.
elem.) 200/305
.3 High-alloyed (more than 5% all.
elem.) 225/392
.31 Stainless, Ferr., Mart., 200/305
.32 Stainless, Aust. 200/333
.33 Manganese steel 12-14% Mn
250/522
.34 Hardened and tempered
380/580
07 Malleable cast-iron
07.1 Ferritic (short-chipping)130/1400
.2 Pearlitic (long-chipping) 230/1600
.3 Martensitic 250/203
08 Grey cast-iron
08.1 Low-tensile strength 180/137
.2 High-tensile strength 260/203
Austenitic 175/254
09 Nodular cast-iron (Ductile)
09.1 Ferritic 160/150
.2 Pearlitic 250/250
.3 Martensitic 330/305
10 Chilled cast-iron (White)
10.1 Cast or cast/aged 400/400
 11 Sintered materials 22 Refractory metals and alloys
11.1 Iron based 22.1 Niobium (Columbium)
.2 Copper based, Nickel based .2 Molybdenum
.3 Refractory metal base .3 Tantalum
.4 Aluminum based alloys .4 Tungsten
.5 Fe-Ni-Co alloys .5 Tungsten, alloyed

20 Heat resistant alloys (Iron based) 23 Titanium

20.11 Annealed or solution treat.
200/435
.12 Aged or solution treat./aged
(Nickel based) 280/442
20.21 Annealed or sol.treat. 250/482
.22 Aged or sol. treat./aged
350/522
.23 Cold drawn 275/500
.24 Cast or cast/aged (Cobalt
based) 320/536
20.31 Annealed or sol. treat. 250/507
.32 Sol. treat./aged 350/580
.33 Cast or cast/aged 320/551
21 Nickel (Comm. pure)
21.11 Annealed or cold drawn
(Copper alloyed Nickel)
21.21 Annealed, cold drawn or cast
.22 Sol. treat.
.23 Aged
23.1 Comm. pure
.21 Alpha and Beta alloys, annealed
.22 Alpha plus Beta alloys, aged and
Beta alloys, annealed or aged
24 Nickel-Titanium alloys
24.1 Forged, wrought
.2 Annealed
.3 Quenched
30 Aluminum
30.11 Wrought/cold-worked alloy
60/72
.12 Wrought/wrought and aged
alloy 100/116
.21 Cast, non-aging alloy 75/108
.22 Cast/cast and aged alloy 90/130
.30 Comm. pure 30/58
.41 Cast, with -15% Si alloy 130/137
.42 Cast -22% Si alloy 130/137

Deephole drilling in aerospace industry

II-54 MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Coronite endmilling in die steel

31 Magnesium and alloys 41 Carbon fiber composite

31.1 Wrought or cast 41.1 Carbon with fiber content -60%
.2 Carbon with fiber content +60%
33 Copper
33.1 Free-cutting alloys 110/101 43 Aramid composite
.2 Brass and lead-bronze 90/101
.3 Bronze and non-lead copper 44 Hybrids, various composites
100/250
45 Rubber
34 Zinc
34.1 Cast 65 Carbons and Graphites

35 Uranium 70 Flame and plasma sprayed

35.1 Annealed
materials
70.1 Heat and wear resistant
36. Zirconium .2 Steels
36.1 Rolled, extruded and forged .3 Steels and ferr. stainless steel
.4 Aust. stainless steel
40 Plastics, Glass fiber .5 Irons
40.1 Thermo plastic .6 Al, Cu, Ni alloys
.2 Curable plastic, thermo-setting .7 Zn, Pb, Sn, Ag, Pf alloys
.3 Curable and reinforced
.4 Carbon fiber reinforced

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

Turning of forged steel railway axles

Endmilling of machine turrets

Drilling of ship propellor axles

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

Material cross reference list

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING
II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING
 Machining of hard materials
Hard materials are generally those with a hardness of above 42 up to 65
HRc. In the past, the only way to shape these was through grinding or
extremely slow machining. Today, new tool material development has
meant that these components can be formed through metal cutting. The
machining of chilled cast-iron in steel mill rolls has traditionally been
done with metal cutting while hardened steel components have been
ground. Both areas have been improved with new productivity and
security levels.

The choice of cutting tool for machining hard materials is influenced by

the severe demands made by the workpieces. The problems ex-
perienced include very rapid tool wear, cracks or chipping in the
cutting edge leading to generally poor results. Although cemented
carbides can cope with some of the operations and materials involved,
more specialized tool materials are needed to do a really qualified job;
certain types of ceramics and cubic boron nitride are the main types.
Difficulties in machining hard materials can be from:
- high temperatures in the cutting zone
- higher and variable cutting force magnitudes
- high pressure on a small chip cross-section, near the edge
- rapid cutting edge wear or breakdown
- stresses in workpiece released during machining

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

- poor homogenity in workpiece material
- insufficient stability
The extreme thermal and mechanical demands on tools in these
operations should primarily determine the choice of insert type, shape,
grade, geometry, machining method and cutting data.

The properties demanded of the cutting tool are mainly:

- abrasive wear resistance
- chemical stability
- hot hardness
- compression and bending strength
- resistance to diffusion wear
- cutting edge strength/toughness
- chemical stability

Cutting hard steels requires that the first three properties especially are
met by the tool. Cast-iron is very abrasive but machining temperatures
are lower and less emphasis is placed on chemical stability. Interrupted
cuts require more strength and toughness from the tool.

The two principle ways of achieving hardness in these materials are

through transformation to martensite (Mar.) in the structure of steel
and formation of carbides (Car.) in HRc
the structure as in white cast-iron.
70
Most steels contain a mixture of
the two.
65
In the adjoining diagram, a range of
hard materials is shown with typical 60
hardness ranges and the main
cause of hardness in the structure.
55

A. White/chilled cast-iron
B. High speed steel 50
A B C D E F
C. Tool steel
Car.
D. Ball-bearing steel
E. Heat-treatable steel Mar.
F. Case-hardened steel

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

 Many axles, wheels, shafts, gears
and rings are hardened carbon
and alloy steel (CMC 02.1-2.4).
Surface hardening to depths up to
.08 in. leaves a tough core with
a wear resistant layer. Finishing
operations are then employed to
achieve high accuracy and surface
texture. These are performed at
high productivity rates in turning
where hardness and homogenity
are normally high and consistent.
High alloy steel journals, which
Hard part turning is an economic have been through-hardened (CMC
alternative to grinding 04.1) are often just finish turned.
When it comes to white/chilled cast-iron (CMC 10) most components
such as rolls or bars, do not require the same finish. Accuracy normally
has to be in the region of .004 in. and surface texture Ra 1.2. These
workpieces are often large and their condition varies considerably from
pre-machined workpieces to those having abrasive skins and cracks.
Hardness is somewhat lower but homogenity is poorer with roughing
and finishing being performed.

Hard materials make special demands on the cutting edges

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

Workpieces that have been hardened through hard facing, welding or
spraying are very demanding to machine, especially components which
have been repaired. Worn or new surfaces are applied with hard, wear
resistant layers, often having large and intricate profiles. Layers or strings
of stellite give rise to some of the most demanding operations in exis-
tence and were not possible to perform satisfactorily until recent years.
Some high temperature alloys are originally relatively soft, but during
machining they are work-hardened. Higher cutting speeds raise the cut-
ting temperature, reducing the deformation resistance. This means that
similar cutting tool materials, such as those used for hard materials,
with good toughness/strength, can also be suitable for these workpieces.

When hard materials are machined, the workpiece surface tends to

become burnished, leaving a clean surface with less likelihood for crack
formation and better wear life for the component. The surface texture
and accuracy are usually better than in corresponding grinding opera-
tions and turning is also considerably more productive than grinding.
The main cutting tool materials for machining hard materials (over 45-
50 HRc) are:

- CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride)

- Ceramics
C BN is idea l f or machi n ing
hardened, iron-based materials
such as steel forgings, hardened
steel, cast-iron, surface hardened
components, cobalt and iron based
powder metals, forming rolls, pear-
litic cast-iron, high temperature
alloys and martensitic stainless
steels. CBN performs best in
abrasive, hard materials, as softer
materials lead to poorer tool-life -
an important factor for machining
components that are not through- Excellent surface texture is achieved with
hardened. Excellent surface finish hard part turning

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

Workpieces that have been hardened through hard facing, welding or
spraying are very demanding to machine, especially components which
have been repaired. Worn or new surfaces are applied with hard, wear
resistant layers, often having large and intricate profiles. Layers or strings
of stellite give rise to some of the most demanding operations in exis-
tence and were not possible to perform satisfactorily until recent years.
Some high temperature alloys are originally relatively soft, but during
machining they are work-hardened. Higher cutting speeds raise the cut-
ting temperature, reducing the deformation resistance. This means that
similar cutting tool materials, such as those used for hard materials,
with good toughness/strength, can also be suitable for these workpieces.

When hard materials are machined, the workpiece surface tends to

become burnished, leaving a clean surface with less likelihood for crack
formation and better wear life for the component. The surface texture
and accuracy are usually better than in corresponding grinding opera-
tions and turning is also considerably more productive than grinding.
The main cutting tool materials for machining hard materials (over 45-
50 HRc) are:

- CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride)

- Ceramics
C BN is idea l f or machi n ing
hardened, iron-based materials
such as steel forgings, hardened
steel, cast-iron, surface hardened
components, cobalt and iron based
powder metals, forming rolls, pear-
litic cast-iron, high temperature
alloys and martensitic stainless
steels. CBN performs best in
abrasive, hard materials, as softer
materials lead to poorer tool-life -
an important factor for machining
components that are not through- Excellent surface texture is achieved with
hardened. Excellent surface finish hard part turning

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

# 14 What cutting tool material
should be considered for machining
hardened materials?

A. Ceramic

B. Cubic Boron Nitride

C. None

D. Both A & B
# 14 What cutting tool material
should be considered for machining
hardened materials?

A. Ceramic

B. Cubic Boron Nitride

C. None

D. Both A & B
can be obtained in good, stable
machining conditions and the .004
harder the workpiece is, the more
advantageous the use of CBN.
Low content CBN, in combination 20 

with a ceramic binder, has better r

wear resistance and chemical sta-
bility, and is more suited to hard
steel components, and also to CBN-S
cast-iron. Higher content CBN,
which has more toughness, is more suitable for hard cast-iron and
steel as well as high temperature alloys.
Rigidity is essential in machinery and tooling. A large enough tool radius
and suitable edge reinforcement are also important. Interrupted cuts
should be carefully assessed to ensure that tool and set-up are the most
suitable. Edge chamfering directs cutting forces towards the stronger
part of the insert. Honing of the edge reduces risks of micro-chipping.
A typical “S” edge treatment is shown above with a .004" x 20"
chamfer plus a radius (r) on the cutting edge.

Moderate cutting speeds and relatively low feed rates and small cutting
depths are best. Cutting speeds should not be too low because of the
added risk of micro-chipping. If cutting fluid is used it should be an
emulsion and supply should be continuous. The workpiece usually
remains cool in machining with CBN as the heat is transported away
with the chips. Dry machining should be first choice.
Ceramic inserts are used widely for machining hard materials. They
have excellent characteristics for the job in that they are very wear
resistant, have high hot hardness and good chemical stability. Long
tool-life and high removal rates are typical when applied correctly. The
success of ceramics relies on the right machining conditions in the
right operation and workpiece material. Machine tool condition and
performance, methods and the insert type, as well as edge pre-
paration, are also important. The workpiece materials in this area are
considerable and include most types and conditions: hard steels,
chilled cast-iron and surface hardened components.

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

can be obtained in good, stable
machining conditions and the .004
harder the workpiece is, the more
advantageous the use of CBN.
Low content CBN, in combination 20 

with a ceramic binder, has better r

wear resistance and chemical sta-
bility, and is more suited to hard
steel components, and also to CBN-S
cast-iron. Higher content CBN,
which has more toughness, is more suitable for hard cast-iron and
steel as well as high temperature alloys.
Rigidity is essential in machinery and tooling. A large enough tool radius
and suitable edge reinforcement are also important. Interrupted cuts
should be carefully assessed to ensure that tool and set-up are the most
suitable. Edge chamfering directs cutting forces towards the stronger
part of the insert. Honing of the edge reduces risks of micro-chipping.
A typical “S” edge treatment is shown above with a .004" x 20"
chamfer plus a radius (r) on the cutting edge.

Moderate cutting speeds and relatively low feed rates and small cutting
depths are best. Cutting speeds should not be too low because of the
added risk of micro-chipping. If cutting fluid is used it should be an
emulsion and supply should be continuous. The workpiece usually
remains cool in machining with CBN as the heat is transported away
with the chips. Dry machining should be first choice.
Ceramic inserts are used widely for machining hard materials. They
have excellent characteristics for the job in that they are very wear
resistant, have high hot hardness and good chemical stability. Long
tool-life and high removal rates are typical when applied correctly. The
success of ceramics relies on the right machining conditions in the
right operation and workpiece material. Machine tool condition and
performance, methods and the insert type, as well as edge pre-
paration, are also important. The workpiece materials in this area are
considerable and include most types and conditions: hard steels,
chilled cast-iron and surface hardened components.

II-64MODERN METAL CUTTING

#14?

A.
B.
C.
D.
The toolholding is a critical factor when it comes to machining with ceramics

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-65

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ra

A2
A3
B
CB 20
CB 50
A2 = mixed al. oxide ceramic 1 = Steel, finishing
A3 = re-inforced mixed ceramic 2 = Steel, interrupted cuts
B = silicon nitride ceramic 3 = Cast iron, with skin
CB 20 = medium-content CBN 4 = Cast iron, with grooves.
CB 50 = high-content CBN 5 = Cast iron, refabricated
6 = Sprayed/Welded, roughing
Recommended Alternative 7 = Sprayed/Welded, finishing (Ra)

The ceramic types suitable for machining hard materials are the alumi-
num-oxide based, mixed and re-inforced grades, and the silicon nitride
grade based. The mixed-type grade ceramic is used to the broadest
extent in steels and cast-iron. The re-inforced type specializes in
difficult conditions in steel and cast-iron. The silicon-nitride type is used
only in cast-iron with difficult machining conditions.

.008

.004 .008 .005

20
 15 15 

25


T1 T2 K

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Edge reinforcement is also important for ceramic inserts, to direct the
higher cutting forces of hard materials to stronger cross-sections of the
inserts. The (T1) type of reinforcement lends itself best to hard steel
and the (T2 and K), are best for chilled cast-iron. Ceramic inserts are
generally the best choice for machining hard material components.
The advent of very capable, tough and hard ceramic grades have made
the turning of hard material components a more attractive alternative
to the conventional grinding operations. The versatility of turning in
lathes provides the capability to turn complex shapes, perform
different operations, have quick change-over, higher productivity, etc.
Costs have proved to be considerably lower for machinery, tools,
space, time, etc. while the quality of machined components is higher.

Aluminum oxide ceramics are suitable for finishing hardened steel components

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

An example that shows the advantages of hard part turning is that of
the machining of hardened machine axles and rings, as shown in the
photo below. These are made of alloy steel, hardened to 62 HRc and
previously ground. Turning with mixed ceramic inserts, based on
aluminum oxide, has led to a production time reduction of eighty
percent compared with grinding, as well as cost reductions.
A CNC lathe with Coromant Capto modular tools machines the parts
with a cutting speed of 490 ft/min, feed .004 in/rev and cutting depth
of .004 inch. Using a square ceramic insert, with a nose radius of .031
in., three hundred components are completed per edge.
In the automotive industry a crown wheel (A) in low alloy steel, case-
hardened to 63 HRc is finish-turned with cubic boron nitride, square
inserts, with medium content CBN. The cutting speed used is 500
ft/min, feed .004 in/rev and cutting depth .008 inch. A tool-life of 45
minutes is achieved during which two hundred components are
machined per edge.

04.448 .001
0

ƒ
.35

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 B Ra63
.13
16.50

.315

010 08.07

2.08 C

A steel mill roll (B) in chilled cast-iron, through-hardened to 57 HRc and

with a heavy cast-skin is machined with a reinforced, aluminum oxide
based ceramic grade, A square insert having a .094 in. nose radius is
used. The roll takes 23 minutes to machine and just over one roll can be
machined per edge. The cutting speed is 78 ft/min, feed .024 in/rev
and cutting depth .20 inch. No coolant is used in this very tough operation.
A steel roll (C) is turned with a mixed ceramic grade. With a through
hardness of 54 HRc, the high-alloy steel has grooves that have to be
formed by the tool. A round insert is used to profile the groove
radii. Tool-life is nearly three minutes per edge, which produces five
completed rolls. Cutting speed is 430 ft/min, feed is .005 in/rev and
cutting depth is .004 inch. The surface is pre-machined and an emul-
sion coolant is used.

A rotor component (D) in a cobalt based alloy with stellite cladding is

finish-turned by a reinforced ceramic round insert. Strings of stellite
grade 12 have been welded onto
the cylinder for machining to final
shape and size. No coolant is used
for the insert turning at a cutting
06.929 speed of 1150 ft/min, feed .004
in/rev and cutting depth .04 inch.
A tool-life of around five minutes
per edge is achieved.
26.77
D

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Heat treatment of metals
Heat treatment of metals is used to modify properties by controlling the
heating and cooling of the process. The temperatures involved depend
upon which changes are to take place in the metal, along with the
mechanical processing that has taken place prior to heat treatment.
Which of the various heat treatment processes is used depends upon
the type of material and the properties required.
The following describes the main methods of heat treatment for steel
to help in the assessing of components for machinability. This is not
intended as a direct practical guide in heat treatment of metal.
Processes covered are:
- annealing
- hardening
- tempering
- case-hardening
- surface-hardening

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Annealing
Metal which has been subjected to hot or cold working normally
requires annealing before further operations are performed. The
treatment adopted varies according to the condition required, the
common ones being: normalizing, spheroidizing (and full-annealing),
stress relieving and recrystallization (or softening).

Normalizing serves chiefly to refine and make uniform a grain structure

that has been coarsened by hot working. For this purpose, the steel, if
hypoeutectoid, is heated to a temperature slightly above the completion
of transformation or, for hypereutectoid steels, to above transformation.
A heating time just long enough to ensure uniform temperature through
the steel, is required. Recrystallization takes place, changing the coarse,
heterogeneous structure into a fine-grained, uniform one. This improves
the toughness and strength of the material and facilitates subsequent
heat treatment. Normalized parts are allowed to cool freely in air.
Rolling and forging which have been continued down to low tempera-
tures of about 7000 C, produce a fine-grained structure. Normalizing is
then unnecessary and may even be undesirable, because the structure
is liable to coarsen.

Milling annealed steel

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

The limit curves in the below diagram apply to components having small
cross-sections. For large-section components, temperatures are about
25° C higher.
A. upper limit of forging D: water quenching/annealing
temperature E: spheroidizing
A. normalizing F: recrystallization
B. oil hardening G: stress relieving

Normalizing is mainly required for steels with a maximum of about 1%

carbon. For higher carbon contents, hot working can be continued to
temperatures low enough to render normalizing unneccessary.
Spheroidizing takes place in heating steel so as to convert the cemen-
tite to its spheroidal form, making the steel softer and more malleable.
The advantages gained from this treatment are several: the steel is more
easily worked, machinability is improved, a microstructure suitable for
hardening is given and residual hot-working stresses are removed.

tc

1100
A
1000

900 B
C
800
CD
700
D
E
600 FG

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 C%

Limits and areas of various heat-treatment methods

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Spheroidizing generally means improved machinability
Carbon hypoeutectoid and eutectoid steels are annealed for
spheroidizing at temperatures just at the transformation or immediately
below, usually at 700 to 720° C. The temperature is maintained for 3 to
4 hours and the rate of cooling is generally unimportant. This treatment
is sometimes referred to as sub-critical annealing. Complete
spheroidizing of the cementite is not always possible, due to the
narrow temperature limits which the process imposes. However, it is
not always necessary and may even be detrimental in low carbon
steels, since with all the cementite in nodular form, the steel may be
too soft for satisfactory machining. Unalloyed steels with less than
0.40-0.50% carbon are rarely spheroidized. Rolled or forged material
is usually satisfactory in the normalized condition.
Hypereutectoid steels are spheroidized at temperatures slightly above
transformation, at 740 to 780° C. Annealing temperature is held for 2 to
4 hours according to the amount of excess cementite: the denser the
cementite network, the longer the time required. The rate of cooling
should be slow at first - some 20° C per hour, until the temperature has
fallen to about 650° C, after which the steel can be safely cooled down
in air. This heat treatment process often is referred to as full-annealing.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Spheroidizing of hypereutectoid steels can also be carried out below
the transformation level, provided that the cementite network is thin,
though longer annealing times will then be required. Most of the alloy
steels demand higher temperature than straight carbon steels and
should be cooled at not more than 10° C per hour, until the
temperature has fallen to about 600° C.
Stress relieving can be carried out on heavy forged or cast products or
pieces with varying section areas which may cool unevenly after hot
working, causing internal stresses. It is intended to remove such
stresses and does not, as a rule, produce structural changes or
softening in the steel. To eliminate stresses, the steel is heated for
several hours at 500 to 625° C, the period being dependent on the
sizes of the piece and the steel composition. Slow cooling is required.
Softening or recrystallization is done with cold worked steel, such as an
after-rolling heat treatment operation. The steel is first raised to the
normalizing temperature, cooled in air to 700-600° C and finally
changed to a 500 to 600° C hot furnace, which is then allowed to cool.

Stress relieving can be carried out on heavy forged products

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Recrystallization of cold worked steel, such as rolled or pressed
sheet, strip and wire or tubes, has the effect of stiffening the structure.
Thus, resistance to further working increases and a softening treatment
is necessary before the process is completed. Recrystallization
annealing of straight carbon and low-alloy steels is usually carried out
at a temperature of about 600 to 7200 C. The process takes place in a
very short time so the annealing time only needs to be long enough to
ensure uniform through-heating of the component. Cooling may be
either in open air or in a furnace.
If a soft steel structure is required, the process is sometimes used as
the final heat treatment once cold working has been completed. Hot-
worked products do not usually need this treatment since the working
temperature is high enough to promote recrystallization when the steel
cools down.

Hardening
This treatment is used to give steel a high degree of hardness by
quenching it from the austenitic region to that of martensite at a
cooling rate that is higher than the critical value. After the process of
hardening to tempering - an intermediate operation between
annealing and hardening - there are also toughening, martempering
and austempering plus the two methods of surface-hardening, case-
hardening (or carburizing) and nitriding, to consider. A third method of
selectively hardening the surface of a piece of steel, induction
hardening, requires special equipment which is usually designed for a
particular range of work. It should also be noted that according to the
quenching medium used, the terms water quenching and oil
quenching and similarly, air hardening, are employed.
The ability to harden steel is primarily determined by the carbon
content in the austenitic solution and the amount of martensite formed.
Hardenability is principally the steel’s ability to form martensite. This
also determines the hardening depth under the component surface
with more than fifty percent martensite. The next diagram shows the
amount of martensite in relation to the hardness and carbon content.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

When hardening steel, the whole
component should be heated uni- HRC
formly. This is particularly impor- 60 99%
90%
tant with parts of irregular form, 50%
otherwise severe distortion, internal 50
stresses or cracking may occur 40

during or after the hardening 30

operation. It is also important to
use correct hardening tempera- 0.10.3 0.5 0.7 C%
ture since this largely governs the
Hardenability of carbon steel
result of the process: too low a
temperature will prevent the achievment of the desired hardness, too
high will cause excessive grain growth and make the steel brittle.
Steel suppliers usually supply specific information on the appropriate
range of hardening temperatures for each type of steel. In selecting a
temperature within this range, the size of the component to be
hardened and the characteristics of the quenching medium will be
determining factors in each case. The thicker the component, the
higher the temperature and vice versa. On the other hand, for plain
carbon steels, a higher temperature will be needed for oil quenching
as compared to water quenching.
For small components, it may be
advantageous to use molten metal
or salt bath furnaces to provide
rapid and uniform heating. For
large parts, a muffle furnace often
gives the best result. This must
operate with a suitable protective
atmosphere if sealing and decar-
burization of the steel is to be
avoided.
When the component has attained
hardening temperature, the actual
hardening process takes place by
cooling it in water, oil or air. The
Hardened axles that are turned with speed of cooling should not, as a
mixed ceramics

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

rule, exceed the critical cooling rate. When quenching in water, the
bath should generally be at a temperature between 20 and 40° C. Its
cooling capacity can be increased by the addition of common salt.
The cooling capacity of oil varies with temperature and reaches a
maximum, for most quenching oils, at 50 to 75° C. To achieve uniform
cooling, the component should be immersed with its longer section at
right angles to the cooling surface. If the component has a varying
section, the thickest parts should be submerged first. The component
should be moved back and forth, or the bath should be stirred during
cooling.
If the surface of the component is not hard, after heating and quenching,
the problem may lie in one or more of the following factors:
- loss of carbon through decarburization in preceding heating operation
- temperature too low or not uniform
- time too short to ensure uniformity throughout
- cooling too slowly, possibly due to using an inadequate quenching
medium.

t°C

A1
The cooling curves shown on the tempera-
ture/time diagram refer to normally hardened B1
pieces which either harden right through (left A2 B2
curves), or surface only (right curves).
A1: surface, small component
B1: core, small component
A2: surface, large component log
B2: core, large component

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Tempering
The purpose of tempering is to increase the toughness of the steel
and to relieve the internal stresses caused by hardening. However, the
increase in toughness is accompanied by a decrease in hardness,
so the tempering operation must aim at achieving the optimum
combination of the two characteristics.

Tempering is normally carried out by one of the following methods:

- Normally hardened steel is reheated to the temperature required for

tempering and kept there for the appropriate time, then left to cool in
air. Close control of the temperature is essential, therefore, special
tempering furnaces are used.
- In the hardening operation, the steel is not allowed to cool completely,
but is removed from the quench tank while the center is still hot.
The retained heat is then sufficient to temper the outer hardened
surface. As soon as the surface - specially cleaned for this purpose
- shows the appropriate temper color, the operation is terminated
by quenching the steel in water.

Plastic-forming die in tempered tool steel

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 HRC Heating hardened steel to a
temperature not exceeding 150°C
60 causes no serious decrease in
hardness. Therefore, for relieving
CMC
internal stresses to a moderate
03.13 extent, without impairing hardness,
40
03.11 hardened steel is treated at 100 to
02.1
150° C. When a more marked
increase in toughness is desired,
20 a certain degree of hardness
reduction has to be accepted.
01.4
The temperature may be decided
with reference to the tempering
0
100 300 500 700 diagram established for the grade
°C of steel in question. The tempera-
CMC C Mn Cr Mo W Co V ture should be checked and the
03.13 0.83 - 4 5 6.5 5 1.9 furnace be arranged for easy,
01.4 1.0 0.3
accurate temperature control.
The tempering temperature mainly for
various alloyed steels.

HRC
Of these two methods, the former CMC
is the more commonly employed 60 03.11

because it permits better control 02.1(A)

of both hardening and tempering. 02.1(B)

Tempering should be carried out 40
soon after hardening. The time 01.4
allowed should be sufficient to
keep the core of the component 20
0 .4 1.2 2.0
at temperature for the proper HRC in.
period. This may be from half an
hour to two hours, according to
CMC C Mn Cr Ni Mo W V
the size of the component; the 01.4 1.0 0.3
lower the temperature used, the 02.1(B) 0.9 1.2 0.5 - - 0.5 0.1
longer the time required for the 03.11
02.1(A)
2.1
0.6
0.75
0.4
13
1.0
-
3.0
-
0.3
1.3
-
-
-
operation.
Extent of hardness mainly for some alloyed
steels

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Tempering temperatures may be Color
estimated from the colors which Temperature
appear on the surface of a heated °C
component of steel when it is left
to cool in air. The approximate pale yellow 200
relation between temper color light yellow 220
and temperature is as according dark yellow 240
to the adjoining table. purple 260
violet 280
Toughening is a special heat
dark blue 290
treatment involving hardening
bright blue 300
followed by high temperature
tempering - at 450 to 650° C. The grey blue 350
treatment is applicable only to grey 400
components which are susceptible
to through-hardening and is there-
fore unsuitable for straight carbon Hv
steels, which only harden on the
surface. Toughening is particularly 800

useful for parts made from

alloy steel; for instance, large Cr-
Ni-steel components may gain 600

considerable impact strength by

such high temperature tempering
followed by quenching in oil or 400

water. %C
1.00
0.70
0.50
Ordinary hardening is performed 200
0.30

by cooling the steel rapidly from 0 200 400 600

toC
the austenitising temperature to
room temperature in order to The influence of tempering temperature on
the hardness of various carbon steel.
transform the austenite into mar-
tensite (A). Transformation starts
when the temperature reaches the upper limit of martensite formation
and occurs first in the outer layer of the steel. Thus, if the component
is thick, the structure at the surface may be fully transformed before
the core has had time to cool to the limit. This condition sets up
severe internal stresses and is a cause of distortion and cracking.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 t°C t°C

log log
AB
If the structural changes at the surface can be delayed until the whole
component has attained the same temperature (B), these undesirable
effects may be avoided. A special hardening procedure, designed to
produce a fully martensitic structure with a minimum of residual
stresses, distortion and cracking is called martempering.

In martempering the steel is quenched from the hardening temperature

in a bath of molten salt or metal, the temperature of which slightly
exceeds the martensite formation limit of the steel. After the steel has
attained complete temperature equilibrium, throughout the section in
the bath, it is removed for cooling in air. The austenite-to-martensite
transformation then takes place at approximately the same time
throughout the component. Because quenching in the hot bath is
relatively slow, martempering is suitable only for steels having a fairly
low critical cooling rate. The process is followed by tempering in the
normal way.
Steels with a high degree of toughness are often required, particularly
for highly stressed parts. For such applications, the austempering
procedure may be adopted, producing a bainite structure in the steel.
Bainite is tougher than martensite, at the same hardness, and is
formed by the isothermal transformation of austenite at temperature
levels between 200 and 450° C. For austempering the steel is cooled

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

from the austenite temperature in a bath of molten salt or metal kept
at a temperature exceeding the martensite transformation limit of the
steel. When the entire component has been transformed to bainite, it
may be cooled to room temperature in any medium. The cooling rate,
as in the case of ordinary hardening, must be quick enough to avoid
the formation of pearlite. The final hardness of the component is
controlled by setting the temperature of the quenching bath, which
normally ranges between 200 and 4000 C. No subsequent tempering
process is required. Straight carbon steel can be austempered only if the
components have light enough sections to cool at the necessary high
rate. Large parts requiring austempering must be made of alloy steel.

Machining of steel with a high degree of toughness

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Case-hardening
For various design purposes,
steel components must possess
a highly wear-resistant surface
and a tough, but softer, core. For
such applications, a low carbon
steel - usually of 0.10 to 0.20% C
- is used. The carbon is added to
its surface to make the latter
susceptible to hardening.

In carburizing, one of the main methods used, the addition of carbon

to the surface of the steel - usually up to about 1% - followed by
hardening, results in an extremely hard surface while the core, of low
carbon content, remains unaffected by the hardening operation and
retains its toughness. The process is also valuable in application to
parts which, because of their shape, would be susceptible to cracking
and distortion during heating and would also be lacking in toughness
if made of high-carbon steel.

Traditionally, components are finish-machined before case-hardening,

but not ground. They should also be thoroughly cleaned and, if it is
required that certain parts of the surface not be hardened, the areas
involved can be protected from carburizing by copper plating or by
covering. Protective covering must be thoroughly dried before the parts
are subjected to the treatment. Alternatively, a sufficient machining
allowance may be left on the parts to permit the removal of the
carburized layer by machining before the hardening operation. Today,
hard part turning with ceramics or cubic boron nitride is changing the
methods. Many grinding operations of hardened components can be
replaced by turning.
For pack-carburizing the components are embedded in carburizing
compound - usually a mixture of 60% charcoal and 40% barium car-
bonate, or sometimes calcined bones and leather - contained in a
heat-resisting box with a lid sealed by fireclay. Another method, which
is distinct from pack-carburizing but which is rapidly superceding the
latter in large production plants, is known as gas-carburizing. In this

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

process, a gas of suitable hydro-carbon content is circulated over the
heated work, thus avoiding packing in compound. Immersion in a
heated bath of cyanide salt is a further case-hardening method often
used and referred to as molten cyanide-carburizing. Cyanide salt baths
also liberate nitrogen and treatment by this method gives the effect of
combined carburizing and nitriding.
In all these methods, carbon from the carburizing agent is dissolved in
the low-carbon steel at a temperature above the transformation limits,
usually in the range 850 to 950° C. The carbon permeates slowly into
the austenite and the carbon content of the carburized case therefore
decreases towards the center of the piece. The higher the temperature
employed, the greater the solubility of carbon in austenite; thus the
carbon content of the case and the speed with which a given depth of
case is developed are higher. Carburizing times vary from 2 to 8 hours
or more, according to the depth of case required. The latter should
normally not exceed what is necessary to obtain a hard and wear-
resisting surface after hardening. It may also be necessary to limit the
depth of case on thin articles in order not to impair their toughness.
After carburizing, the charge is cooled and is then subjected to a double
quenching, though the parts should be cleaned first if the pack-car-
burizing method has been used.
The first hardening should start at C


the carburizing temperature. It

serves to refine the grain structure 900

in the core of the steel and to

dissolve any cementite network 800
which may have formed in the
+C
surface layer. This first hardening
operation is often replaced by a 700 A+B B+C
normalizing treatment. The second
stage comprises hardening from 600
760 to 800° C and gives a fine
structure to the carburized case.
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
If a mild carburizing agent has %C
been used, a single quenching 60 HRc
operation may suffice. For this

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

purpose, the carburized components are heated to the normal
hardening temperature of, say, 780 to 8200 C and quenched. For parts
which are not required to stand high stresses, quenching right from the
carburizing furnace may be practiced, with consequent economy, and
with adequate core toughness. This method is most easily used with
gas-carburizing or cyanide hardening and constitutes one of the
important advantages of the former process. After final hardening,
tempering at about 1750 C will increase the toughness of the case-
hardened components without any serious loss of surface hardness.
Nitriding is a case-hardening process in which the added element is
nitrogen instead of carbon. For steel to absorb nitrogen in sufficient
quantities it must contain alloying elements which form nitrides, such
as aluminum, chromium and vanadium. Before nitriding, the parts are
usually hardened and tempered at a high temperature. They are
generally finish-machined and may even be ground before treatment,
since nitriding causes very little distortion.
The process involves exposing the parts, at a temperature of about
500 to 5500 C, to an atmosphere of ammonia gas for a period of 25 to
100 hours. The ammonia dissociates at the surface of the steel, its nitro-
gen content combining with the alloying elements as finely distributed

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

nitrides which give the surface a very high degree of hardness. Nitriding
may also be done in salt baths which can free nitrogen. The principal
advantages of nitriding lie in the avoidance of any subsequent heat
treatment and the absence of distortion and scaling. Its chief dis-
advantage is its slowness and shallow penetration, the depth of which
is not easily controlled with accuracy and cannot even be made to
exceed .04 inch.
The described processes have been included to provide an insight
into the relationship between mechanical properties and heat treatment,
so as to provide a better basis of analysis for machining.

Surface hardening methods

Surface hardness is a broader concept than case hardness and is a

key factor when it comes to affecting wear resistance of mechanical
components. There is a range of methods to produce this property
which has a hard, wear resistant surface, but with a tough core to
withstand breakage.

Surface hardening processes mainly fall into three groups. The

processes are capable of producing wear resistant surfaces, each
with its own particular characteristics.

- Coating: a hard layer of material is deposited on the the workpiece.

- Surface quenching: the workpiece is heated rapidly to a controlled
depth and is then quenched.
- Thermo-chemical change: the composition of the workpiece
surface material is changed to produce a hard surface directly or to
produce one that can be hardened by subsequent heat treatment.

A. Hard facing
B. Electroplating
C. Metal spraying
D. Flame hardening
E. Induction hardening
F. Carburizing
G. Nitriding

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 AB

N N N N NN
N N NN
F N N G NN
N N N NN
N

The hard facing process involves depositing a selected alloy on areas

of the workpiece. Electric arc welding is used frequently. The choice of
alloy includes a manganese steel which will work-harden and stellite
containing chromium and tungsten.
Hard facing is generally unsuitable for gears, spindles and most
precision components in engineering. Pre- and post-heating are
required for best results in order to prevent stress cracking at the
work interface, except when the work material is mild steel.
Considerable machining or grinding may be required to finish to size.

Applications include earth moving plant and contractor equipment, quarry

plant and oilfield tools. This includes carbon and alloy steel components.
Hard coating can also be deposited on the workpiece through electro-
plating. The workpiece acts as the cathode during application and the
deposit material is the anode. Very hard deposits are possible and
constant depth of deposit and good surface finish are among the
advantages. However, only relatively thin coatings can be deposited
through this method.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Typical components include parts
for tooling, shafts and hydraulic
rams, with suitable steels being
the most conductive metals. The
deposited metal is usually chro-
mium.

In metal spraying, a continuous

ribbon of the material is fed
through a gas flame with a spray
gun. Molten particles are blasted
by means of compressed air onto
the surface of the workpiece,
producing a very uniform surface
that is easily finished with a Machined stellite clad component
minimum of machining. Special equipment is necessary and thick
deposits are not easily built up.

A typical application is reclaiming worn components by rebuilding

damaged surfaces. Any type of steel can be treated, with the deposit
material usually being of a proprietary composition.

In flame hardening, a gas-oxygen flame is used to raise the tempera-ture

of the surface of the workpiece. This is followed by rapid cooling. The
hardening depth depends on the size of the workpiece flame intensity
and heating time. In its simplest form, a welding torch is used and
applied manually but for production applications, the workpiece can
be moved in front of a torch and quenched by either spray or
immersion. Progressive hardening can be carried out along the length
of a flat surface or spirally over the surface of the shaft.
The method gives a good depth of hardness and is easy to localize. It
can generally be used without special equipment and is an economical
process. Hardness depth can vary leading to loss of ductility in the
core material. With gears, this effect can result in tooth weakness and,
consequently, breaking. Distortion can result from stresses produced
during heating and quenching, and soft spots can be produced as the
flame heats an area adjacent to a zone that is already hardened, thus
tempering the zone. There is also tendency for stress cracking.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Typical applications are generally shafts, cams, slideways, gears and
plates in plain carbon steels that give hardness values between 50
and 60 Rc. Higher carbon content steels may be used, but may be
prone to stress cracking. Alloy steels are commonly used and these
present an opportunity of obtaining higher core strength.
In induction hardening, heating of the surface is carried out by means
of a high-frequency coil. The depth of hardening can be controlled
readily, since it is dependent on power input and frequency. Suitably
shaped coils are employed for each type of workpiece. Short heating
times give minimal decarburization and oxidation. Surfaces are easy to
localize and it is more controllable than flame hardening. The process
is somewhat restricted to workpiece shapes. Distortion may be
produced but generally to a lesser extent than with flame hardening.
Incorrect hardening depth is not easy to detect and can lead to failures.
The process is often applied to rotating components, which lend them-
selves to being moved within the heating coil to obtain temperature
uniformity. The process is suitable for spindles, gears, pins, etc. Since
it is similar to flame hardening, there is the same choice of materials.

Induction hardening is suitable for components that can be moved within a heating coil.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

Case hardening is a two-stage process where the workpiece is first
carburized by heating in a carburizing material. Subsequent heat
treatment then provides a combination of core strength and surface
hardness. Low grades of steel may be employed and irregular shapes
can be treated. Deep case thicknesses are possible. Distortion may
be considerable due to high temperatures and long carburizing cycles.
Surface cracking can be produced during the quenching operation and
a tendency for soft spots may be produced as the result of unclean
surfaces, decarburization or faults in the micro-structure of the steel.
Gears, cams, slides, cylinders and worms are typical components in
low-carbon steel. With alloy steels, the choice generally falls between
various nickel-chromium steels. The choice depends very much on
the core properties and case hardness required.

In nitriding, components are subjected to ammonia at a high tempera-

ture for many hours, depending on the depth of hardness required. A
hard surface and wear resistance are produced directly by this single
process. There is good dimensional stability and low amounts of
distortion, whereby assymetrical shapes of intricate forms can be
treated. No stress cracking and a good level of hardness is retained at
elevated working temperatures.

Treated components are clean, free from scale and frequently suitable
for service without machining. A nitrided surface is extremely resistant to
corrosive attack. Fatigue resistance is excellent. However, the process is
suitabile for special alloy steels only and it involves long treating times.
Gears, shafts, molds, dies, pins and general precision components are
typically nitrided. A nitriding steel is frequently selected for its properties
of minimum distortion and predictable behavior during processing.
Hence, slender shafts can be surface hardened without difficulty and
gears which would require finish machining if other surface hardening
techniques were used, may be put into service immediately after
nitriding. There are two main types of steels for nitriding: chromium-
molybdenum steels giving good core strengths, and chromium-
aluminum steels giving similar core strengths but an extremely hard
surface. Both materials are generally supplied in the hardened and
tempered condition, in which they can be machined readily.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Steel: the equilibrium and structures
Carbon, or unalloyed, steels are malleable alloys of iron and carbon,
with carbon contents ranging from a fraction of one to nearly two per-
cent. The carbon content determines the most important characteristics:
hardness, toughness, wear resistance, malleability and hardenability.
Carbon steels always contain small quantities of silicon, manganese,
phosphorus and sulphur. The latter two are kept to very small amounts.

Alloy steels are those containing larger proportions of one or more of

the above elements, and for those to which other elements, such as
chromium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium have been
added in various amounts.

The dominant effect of carbon on the characteristics of steel is shown in

the microstructure. In unhardened steel, at room temperature, practically
all the carbon is combined with iron, forming iron-carbide called
cementite. Steel has three main constituents:

- Ferrite, which is nearly pure iron with practically no carbon. It is

magnetic and, in the pure state, soft and ductile.
- Cementite is iron carbide containing about 6.6 percent carbon.
- Lamellar pearlite is composed of alternately placed plates of
ferrite and cementite. The mean carbon content of the mixture is
about 0.85 percent.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

The minor quantities of silicon,
phosphorus and manganese do
not show since these are first to
be dissolved in ferrite and the last
in cementite. Sulphur is present
chiefly as sulphides, which are
included among the impurities in
the steel. Since the sulphur content
is usually very low in high quality
steels - about 0.20 percent or less
- iron sulphide inclusions are
insignificant. Almost all industrial
steels have carbon contents in
the range indicated in the following part of the iron-carbon phase
diagram. This illustrates the states of equilibrium between the
constituents of steel at different carbon contents and temperatures.

Various equilibrium constituents, known as phases, correspond to

different crystallographic structures. This represents the effect of
graduated carbon contents in slowly cooled steel. At the left is low
carbon iron with a structure of bright grains, ferrite (A), with the lines
marking grain boundaries. With increasing carbon content, a new
constituent, pearlite (B), appears in greater proportions. At 0.85
percent carbon, the entire structure is made up of pearlite. Further
increase in carbon content introduces a new constituent of bright
appearance, cementite (C). It precipitates at the boundaries of the
original austenite (y) grains, making a continuous network around them
and is therefore sometimes called intergranular cementite. The
thickness of the cementite network increases as the carbon content
rises to about 1.7 percent. Cementite is iron carbide, and it should be
noted that alloy steels also contain other forms of carbides.
A steel is said to be eutectoid when it is wholly pearlitic in structure.
Similarly, steels are described as hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid
depending on whether they contain less or more than 0.85 percent carbon,
as these will contain an excess of free ferrite or cementite in addition to
pearlite. Heating eutectoid steel - a steel composed, at room temperature,
exclusively of pearlite - causes a transformation in its structure as the
temperature passes through the level (E) at about 725° C in the diagram.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

This transformation consists of a separation of the pearlite, its con-
stituent lamella of cementite, as well as ferrite, going into solution to
form a new, stable phase of austenite. The formation of austenite
requires a certain length of time and takes place, in the case of
straight carbon steels, within a temperature range of 5 to 100 C.
The pearlite of hypo- and hypereutectoid steels is also transformed into
austenite when the temperature passes the horizontal line through the
transformation temperature, (E) in the equilibrium diagram. If the
temperature rises beyond this point, the excess ferrite or cementite,
as the case may be, dissolves in the austenite. Lines from 9000 to (E)
and upwards in the diagram mark the completion of transformation,
according to the carbon content of the steel. Beyond these critical
temperatures, ferrite and cementite are completely in solution and the
steel has a purely austenitic structure. It should be noted that, whereas
practical requirements for steel generally call for a fine-grained structure,
the grain size of austenite increases with temperature and with time at
temperature.

 C
900

800
A+Y Y+C
700 E
A+B B+C

600
- Ferrite (A)
- Pearlite (B) 0.8
- Cementite (C) 0
- Austenite (-y)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5%C
- Eutectoid point (E)

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

When carbon steel is heated above its critical temperature and then
slowly cooled, the transformation is reversed and the steel gradually
resumes its initial phase. Thus, in hypoeutectoid steels, ferrite preci-
pitates in the temperature range indicated by the transformation lines.
Meanwhile, the carbon content of the residual austenite rises until,
when the temperature falls, it reaches a value of about 0.85 percent.
When the temperature passes the line, the austenite is transformed
almost instantaneously into pearlite and further cooling, down to room
temperature, produces no further structual changes.
The transformation of hypereutectoid steels is similar: cementite preci-
pitates in its range, carbon content decreases progressively to about
0.85 percent in the remaining austenite, which then transforms finally
to pearlite on passing the critical temperature. In eutectoid steels, the
austenite is transformed entirely to pearlite on passing the level (E).
Physical bodies tend to assume the shape which has the minimum
surface - the sphere - as evidenced by a drop of water on a flat surface.
Under the same natural forces, cementite tends to spheroidize, that is,
to form globular particles. Heating steel accelerates the process, but
the transformation temperature cannot be exceeded without
decomposing the cementite.

The heat treatment procedure

known as soft annealing, or sphe-
roidize annealing, involves main-
taining straight carbon steel at a
temperature between 700 and
720° C and spheroidizing the
cementite, making the steel softer
and easier to machine. Since the
required temperature is below the
transformation, the treatment is
also referred to as sub-critical
annealing.
Spheroidizing of cementite neces-
sitates long heat treatment times,

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

particularly for high-carbon steels
with large amounts of excess ce-
mentite. For hypereutectoid steels
the process may be speeded up
by heating to a temperature just
above transformation. As the
equilibrium diagram shows, the
steel matrix will then be composed
of austenite and cementite. The
latter appears in small quantities
o n l y an d in t he f or m of t in y
particles, which represent the
remains of the lamellae and inter-
granular network. On subsequent
slow cooling, the cementite preci-
pitates in globular form around
these particles, instead of in lam-
ellae. This kind of soft annealing
offers a more rapid means of
spheroidizing the cementite in
hypereutectoid steels than sub-
critical annealing.

In the phase diagram, as the rate of cooling is increased, the

transformation line is displaced downward in the diagram. In other
words, rapid cooling of austenite, as by quenching in water, may
prevent the formation of any ferrite plus cementite mixture at all.The
cooling curve passes to the left of the pearlite nose without touching
the line marking the start of transformation. It might be supposed that
austenite thus cooled would remain stable at room temperature. In
spite of rapid cooling, however, austenite undergoes a transformation
- quite different from those mentioned - at low temperature, forming a
new structural phase of steel, called martensite. Martensite has
needle-shaped grains and is extremely hard. Several heat treatment
operations are designed to give a steel a martensitic structure. Bainite
is the structure formed by the precipitation of small particles of
cementite. It is softer and tougher than martensite and formed at a
slower rate.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

The slowest cooling rate which will give a homogeneous martensitic
structure - without any precipitation of a ferrite and cementite mixture,
such as pearlite or bainite - is called the critical cooling rate. There is
an upper limit of the temperature range in which martensite is formed
and is lowered as carbon content rises. On the other hand, the amount
of martensite precipitated in a given steel depends on the temperature
to which the steel has been cooled. The progress of martensite pre-
cipitation with falling temperature is determined largely by the com-
position of the austenite and probably by its grain size. Steels which
can be hardened from a wide range of temperatures without developing
a coarse structure are said to be inherently fine-grained types.
The amount of martensite formed rises as the temperature is reduced,
but in practice it is not possible to transform all the austenite into
martensite, and hardened steels, therefore, always contain small
quantities of residual or retained austenite. The hardness which can be
imparted to steels increases with carbon content. In practice, no sub-
stantial increase in hardness can be attained by increasing carbon
content beyond about 1 percent and, as a rule, steels with less than
0.3 percent carbon are not hardened.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Hypoeutectoid steels should be
heated above the transformation
line, before hardening, in order to 100

dissolve the ferrite completely,

since inclusions of soft ferrite in 80
the martensite would prevent it
from reaching maximum hardness.
Austenite is relatively soft while 50
cementite is hard, even harder HRC in.
than martensite, and may thus
30
help to increase the hardness of
the steel. It is important that, in
eutectoid and hypereutectoid
steels, the cementite is spheroi- 0

dized completely. 0 .04 .12 .20

In hardening processes, the rate of cooling in various parts of the

component falls as the distance inwards from the surface increases.
Therefore, in large-dimensioned parts of carbon steel only a surface
layer between about .08 and .20 inches thick becomes wholly
martensitic, as shown in the diagram. Inside this surface zone is a
region with an increasing amount of fine lamellar pearlite and bainite
in the martensite, until the martensite finally disappears entirely. The
core structure is usually lamellar pearlite.

Because it is literally forced into existence, martensite is not in a state

of equilibrium and tends to decompose into ferrite and cementite.
This process, so slow at room temperature as to be ignored, can be
accelerated by heating and has the effect of reducing the hardness of
the steel while increasing its toughness. The heat treatment applied to
hardened steel with this object is tempering.
At relatively low temperatures, 100 to 200° C, decomposition does not
proceed to the point of precipitating ferrite and cementite. For this to
occur, the temperature must exceed 400° C in which case cementite
forms as extremely small particles.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

 Alloy Steels
Alloy steels contain, in addition to iron and carbon, one or more of such
alloying elements as chromium, nickel or tungsten. Steel containing
substantial amounts of silicon, manganese or phosphorus are also
included in this category.

The inertia of steel to transformation increases with the amount of

alloying elements dissolved in the austenite. These elements thus have
the effect of reducing the critical cooling rate. This enables oil
quenching or air cooling to be practiced and the high internal stresses
caused by water quenching to be avoided.

The lower critical cooling rate of alloy steels provides greater depth of
hardness penetration than with straight carbon steels, and alloy steels
are, therefore, often chosen for parts requiring hardening to a
considerable depth. In addition to the low-alloy steels, a range of
more specialized types, termed high-alloy steels, is produced.
(Stainless steels are included in this group and are known in
austenitic, ferritic, ferritic-austenitic and martensitic varieties.)
Almost any alloying element displaces the point at which the
formation of martensite begins to lower temperature levels. In

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99

austenitic steels, characterized by particularly high chromium and
nickel contents, the martensite formation occurs at levels substantially
below room temperature. Thus, at room temperature, these steels
have an austenitic structure and are not hardenable in the proper
sense of the word. Such steels are non-magnetic. They usually have a
chromium content of 17 to 19% and 7 to 11% of nickel.
Austenitic stainless steel sometimes contains carbides, particularly
chromium carbides, which are incompatible with the needed resistance
to corrosion. These carbides may be dissolved, however, by heating to
a comparatively high temperature, followed by rapid cooling. This treat-
ment, though, may be impractical with large, welded fabrications. To
avoid the precipitation of carbides in and near the welds during slow
cooling from welding heat, steels of low carbon content - 0.06% C or
less - are used, since in these steels, carbides form in insignificant
amounts only. Alternatively, one of the so-called stabilized steels may
be used. These contain one of the strong carbide-formers, titanium or
niobium and tantalum, which form carbides insoluble in austenite. Thus
carbon is not freed to form chromium carbides, which would precipitate
at the grain boundaries in the weld zones. Stabilized steels are suitable
for use at high service temperatures in the range of 500 to 800° C.

Low-carbon, high-chrome steels (from 13 to 30% Cr) are in the alpha

condition at all temperatures below the melting point and are thus
referred to as ferritic steels. As the structure of such steels can never
become austenitic, they cannot be hardened. For a steel to be ferritic,
its carbon content must be less than 0.06% if the chromium content
is 13%, or less than 0.25% if the chromium content is 30%.

Ferritic-austenitic steel contains about 26% Cr and 4 to 5% Ni. Their

carbon content is low and seldom exceeds 0.10%. The structure is
composed of a mixture of ferrite and austenite and cannot be hardened.
Finally, martensitic stainless steel has carbon contents so related to
chromium contents that, when heated above the critical temperature
range, the structure becomes almost entirely austenitic. On cooling, a
martensitic structure is developed and hardening takes place. The
chromium content is usually 13 to 20%, the carbon content ranging
from 0.1 up to 1.0%.

MODERN METAL CUTTING II-99