CH 15

Lecture Presentation
Chapter 15
Acids and Bases
Sherril Soman
Grand Valley State University
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Stomach Acid and Heartburn
• The cells that line your stomach produce

hydrochloric acid.
– To kill unwanted bacteria
– To help break down food
– To activate enzymes that break down food
• If the stomach acid backs up into your
esophagus, it irritates those tissues, resulting in
heartburn.
– Acid reflux

Curing Heartburn
• Mild cases of heartburn can be cured by

neutralizing the acid in the esophagus.
– Swallowing saliva, which contains bicarbonate ion
– Taking antacids that contain hydroxide ions and/or
carbonate ions

GERD
• Chronic heartburn is a problem for some people.
• GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease) is chronic leaking

of stomach acid into the esophagus.
• In people with GERD, the muscles separating the stomach

from the esophagus do not close tightly, allowing stomach
acid to leak into the esophagus.
• Physicians diagnose GERD by attaching a pH sensor to the

esophagus to measure the acidity levels of the fluids
over time.

Properties of Acids
• Sour taste
• Ability to dissolve many metals
• Ability to neutralize bases
• Change blue litmus paper to red

Common Acids

Structures of Acids
• Binary acids have acid hydrogens attached

to a nonmetal atom.
HCl, HF

Structure of Acids
• Oxyacids have acid hydrogens attached to

an oxygen atom.
H2SO4, HNO3

Structure of Acids
• Carboxylic acids
have COOH group.
 HC2H3O2, H3C6H5O7
• Only the first H in the
formula is acidic.
 The H is on the
COOH.

Properties of Bases
• Taste bitter
 alkaloids = plant product that is alkaline
 often poisonous
• Feel slippery
• Ability to turn red litmus paper blue
• Ability to neutralize acids

Common Bases

Indicators
• Indicators are chemicals that change color

depending on the solution’s acidity or
basicity.
• Many vegetable dyes are indicators.
– Anthocyanins
• Litmus
– From Spanish moss
– Red in acid, blue in base
• Phenolphthalein
– Found in laxatives
– Red in base, colorless in acid
Definitions of Acids and Bases
• Arrhenius definition
– Based on H+ and OH-
• Brønsted–Lowry definition
– Based on reactions in which H+ is transferred
• Lewis definition

Arrhenius Theory
• Acids: produce H+ ions in aqueous solution.
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Hydronium Ion
• The H+ ions produced by the acid are so reactive

they cannot exist in water.
– H+ ions are protons!
• Instead, they react with water molecules to produce

complex ions, mainly hydronium ion, H3O+.
H+ + H2O  H3O+
– There are also minor amounts of H+ with multiple water
molecules, H(H2O)n+.

Arrhenius Theory
• Bases: produce OH− ions in aqueous solution.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH(aq)

Arrhenius Acid–Base Reactions
• The H+ from the acid combines with the OH−

from the base to make a molecule of H2O.
– It is often helpful to think of H2O as H—OH.
• The cation from the base combines with the

anion from the acid to make a salt.
acid + base → salt + water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Problems with Arrhenius Theory
• It does not explain why molecular substances, such

as NH3, dissolve in water to form basic solutions,
even though they do not contain OH– ions.
• It does not explain how some ionic compounds,
such as Na2CO3 or Na2O, dissolve in water to form
basic solutions, even though they do not contain
OH– ions.
• It does not explain why molecular substances, such
as CO2, dissolve in water to form acidic solutions,
even though they do not contain H+ ions.
• It does not explain acid–base reactions that take
place outside aqueous solution.

Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Theory
• It defines acids and bases based on what happens

in a reaction.
• Any reaction involving H+ (proton) that transfers

from one molecule to another is an acid–base
reaction, regardless of whether it occurs in
aqueous solution or if there is OH− present.
• All reactions that fit the Arrhenius definition also fit

the Brønsted–Lowry definition.

Brønsted–Lowry Theory
• The acid is an H+ donor.
• The base is an H+ acceptor.

– Base structure must contain an atom with an unshared
pair of electrons.
• In a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction, the

acid molecule donates an H+ to the base
molecule.
H–A + :B  :A– + H–B+

Brønsted–Lowry Acids
• Brønsted–Lowry acids are H+ donors.

– Any material that has H can potentially be a
Brønsted–Lowry acid.
– Because of the molecular structure, often one H in the
molecule is easier to transfer than others.
• When HCl dissolves in water, the HCl is the acid

because HCl transfers an H+ to H2O, forming
H3O+ ions.
– Water acts as base, accepting H+.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Cl–(aq) + H3O+(aq)

acid base

Brønsted–Lowry Bases
• Brønsted–Lowry bases are H+ acceptors.

– Any material that has atoms with lone pairs can potentially
be a Brønsted–Lowry base.
– Because of the molecular structure, often one atom in the
molecule is more willing to accept H+ transfer than others.
• When NH3 dissolves in water, the NH3(aq) is the

base because NH3 accepts an H+ from H2O,
forming OH–(aq).
– Water acts as acid, donating H+.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

base acid

Amphoteric Substances
• Amphoteric substances can act as either an

acid or a base because they have both a
transferable H and an atom with lone pair
electrons.
• Water acts as base, accepting H+ from HCl.

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Cl–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• Water acts as acid, donating H+ to NH3.

NH3(aq) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Reactions
• One of the advantages of Brønsted–Lowry theory is that it

illustrates reversible reactions to be as follows:
H–A + :B  :A– + H–B+
• The original base has an extra H+ after the reaction, so it

will act as an acid in the reverse process.
• And the original acid has a lone pair of electrons after the
reaction, so it will act as a base in the reverse process:
:A– + H–B+  H–A + :B

Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs
• In a Brønsted-–Lowry acid–base reaction,

– the original base becomes an acid in the reverse reaction.
– the original acid becomes a base in the reverse process.
• Each reactant and the product it becomes is called

a conjugate pair.

Conjugate Pairs
A base accepts a proton and becomes a conjugate acid.
An acid donates a proton and becomes a conjugate base.

Arrow Conventions
• Chemists commonly use two kinds of

arrows in reactions to indicate the degree
of completion of the reactions.
• A single arrow indicates that all the

reactant molecules are converted to
product molecules at the end.
• A double arrow indicates the reaction

stops when only some of the reactant
molecules have been converted into
products.
–  in these notes

Strong or Weak
• A strong acid is a strong electrolyte.

– Practically all the acid molecules ionize.
• A strong base is a strong electrolyte.

– Practically all the base molecules form OH– ions,
either through dissociation or reaction with water.
• A weak acid is a weak electrolyte.

– Only a small percentage of the molecules ionize, .
• A weak base is a weak electrolyte
– only a small percentage of the base molecules form OH–
ions, either through dissociation or reaction with water, .

Strong Acids
• Strong acids donate practically all their H’s.
 100% ionized in water
 Strong electrolyte
• [H3O+] = [strong acid]

 [X] means the molarity of X

Weak Acids
• Weak acids donate a small fraction of their H’s.
 Most of the weak acid molecules do not
donate H to water.
 Much less than 1% ionized in water
• [H3O+] << [weak acid]

Examples of Strong Acids

Examples of Weak Acids

Strengths of Acids and Bases
• Commonly, acid or base strength is measured by determining
the equilibrium constant of a substance’s reaction with water.
HAcid + H2O  Acid− + H3O+
Base: + H2O  HBase+ + OH−
• The farther the equilibrium position lies toward the products,

the stronger the acid or base.
• The position of equilibrium depends on the strength of

attraction between the base form and the H+.
– Stronger attraction means stronger base or weaker acid.

Ionic Attraction and Acid Strength

General Trends in Acidity
• The stronger an acid is at donating H, the weaker

the conjugate base is at accepting H.
• Higher oxidation number = stronger oxyacid

– H2SO4 > H2SO3; HNO3 > HNO2
• Cation stronger acid than neutral molecule; neutral

stronger acid than anion
– H3O+ > H2O > OH−; NH4+ > NH3 > NH2−
– Trend in base strength opposite

Autoionization of Water
• Water is amphoteric; it can act either as an acid or a base.

– Therefore, there must be a few ions present.
• About 2 out of every 1 billion water molecules form ions

through a process called autoionization.
H2O  H+ + OH–
H2O + H2O  H3O+ + OH–
• All aqueous solutions contain both H3O+ and OH–.

– The concentration of H3O+ and OH– are equal in water.
– [H3O+] = [OH–] = 10−7M at 25 °C

Ion Product of Water
• The product of the H3O+ and OH– concentrations

is always the same number.
• The number is called the ion product of water
and has the symbol Kw.
– Also know as the dissociation constant of water
• [H3O+] × [OH–] = Kw = 1.00 × 10−14 at 25 °C
– If you measure one of the concentrations, you can
calculate the other.
• As [H3O+] increases the [OH–] must decrease so
the product stays constant.
– Inversely proportional

Acid Ionization Constant, Ka
• Acid strength is measured by the size of the equilibrium

constant when it reacts with H2O.
• The equilibrium constant for this reaction is called the

acid ionization constant, Ka.
– larger Ka = stronger acid

Table 15.5

Acidic and Basic Solutions
• All aqueous solutions contain both H3O+ and OH– ions.
• Neutral solutions have equal [H3O+] and [OH–].

– [H3O+] = [OH–] = 1.00 × 10−7
• Acidic solutions have a larger [H3O+] than [OH–].

– [H3O+] > 1.00 × 10−7; [OH–] < 1.00 × 10−7
• Basic solutions have a larger [OH–] than [H3O+].

– [H3O+] < 1.00 × 10−7; [OH–] > 1.00 × 10−7

Measuring Acidity: pH
• The acidity or basicity of a
solution is often expressed
as pH.
• pH = −log[H3O+]
Exponent on 10 with a
positive sign
pHwater = −log[10−7] = 7
Need to know the [H3O+]
concentration to find pH
• pH < 7 is acidic; pH > 7 is
basic. pH = 7 is neutral.
• [H3O+] = 10−pH
Sig., Figs., and Logs
• When you take the log of a number written in scientific
notation, the digits before the decimal point come
from the exponent on 10, and the digits after the
decimal point come from the decimal part of the
number.
log(2.0 x 106) = log(106) + log(2.0)
= 6 + 0.30303… = 6.30303...
• Because the part of the scientific notation number that
determines the significant figures is the decimal part,
the sig. figs. are the digits after the decimal point
in the log.
log(2.0 × 106) = 6.30
What Does the pH Number Imply?
• The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution;

the higher the pH, the more basic the solution.
1 pH unit corresponds to a factor of 10 difference
in acidity.
• Normal range of pH is 0 to 14.
pH 0 is [H3O+] = 1 M; pH 14 is [OH–] = 1 M.
pH can be negative (very acidic) or larger than 14
(very alkaline).

pOH
• Another way of expressing the acidity/basicity of

a solution is pOH.
• pOH = −log[OH], [OH] = 10−pOH
pOHwater = −log[10−7] = 7
Need to know the [OH] concentration to find pOH
• pOH < 7 is basic; pOH > 7 is acidic; pOH = 7 is
neutral.
• pH + pOH = 14.0

Relationship between pH and pOH
• pH + pOH = 14.00 at 25 °C.

– You can use pOH to find the pH of a
solution.
[H3O ][OH ]  K w  1.0  1014
    
 log [H3O ][OH ]   log 1.0  1014
     
 log [H O3
] 
 log [OH ]  14.00
pH  pOH  14.00

pK
• A way of expressing the strength of an acid or

base is pK.
• pKa = −log(Ka), Ka = 10−pKa
• pKb = −log(Kb), Kb = 10−pKb
• The stronger the acid, the smaller the pKa.
– Larger Ka = smaller pKa
– Because it is the –log
• The stronger the base, the smaller the pKb.
– Larger Kb = smaller pKb

[H3O+] and [OH−] in a Strong Acid or
Strong Base Solution
• There are two sources of H3O+ in an aqueous

solution of a strong acid—the acid and the water.
• There are two sources of OH− in an aqueous
solution of a strong acid—the base and the water.
• For a strong acid or base, the contribution of the
water to the total [H3O+] or [OH−] is negligible.
– The [H3O+]acid shifts the Kw equilibrium so far that [H3O+]water is
too small to be significant.
• Except in very dilute solutions, generally < 1 × 10−4 M

Finding pH of a Strong Acid or Strong
Base Solution
• For a monoprotic strong acid [H3O+] = [HAcid].

– For polyprotic acids, the other ionizations can generally
be ignored.
• For H2SO4, the second ionization cannot be ignored.
– 0.10 M HCl has [H3O+] = 0.10 M and pH = 1.00
• For a strong ionic base, [OH−] = (number OH−) ×
[Base].
– For molecular bases with multiple lone pairs available,
only one lone pair accepts an H; the other reactions
can generally be ignored.
– 0.10 M Ca(OH)2 has [OH−] = 0.20 M and pH = 13.30.

Finding the pH of a Weak Acid
• There are also two sources of H3O+ in an

aqueous solution of a weak acid—the acid and
the water.
• However, finding the [H3O+] is complicated by the
fact that the acid only undergoes partial ionization.
• Calculating the [H3O+] requires solving an
equilibrium problem for the reaction that defines
the acidity of the acid.
HAcid + H2O  Acid + H3O+

Percent Ionization
• Another way to measure the strength of an acid is to

determine the percentage of acid molecules that
ionize when dissolved in water; this is called the
percent ionization.
– The higher the percent ionization, the stronger the acid.
• Because [ionized acid]equil = [H3O+]equil

Relationship between [H3O+]equilibrium and
[HA]initial
• Increasing the initial concentration

of acid results in increased [H3O+]
at equilibrium.
• Increasing the initial concentration
of acid results in decreased
percent ionization.
• This means that the increase in
[H3O+] concentration is slower
than the increase in acid
concentration.

Why Doesn’t the Increase in H3O+ Keep
Up with the Increase in HA?
• The reaction for ionization of a weak acid is as follows:

HA(aq) + H2O(l)  A−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• According to Le Châtelier’s principle, if we reduce the
concentrations of all the (aq) components, the
equilibrium should shift to the right to increase the total
number of dissolved particles.
– We can reduce the (aq) concentrations by using a more
dilute initial acid concentration.
• The result will be a larger [H3O+] in the dilute solution
compared to the initial acid concentration.
• This will result in a larger percent ionization.
Finding the pH of Mixtures of Acids
• Generally, you can ignore the contribution of the

weaker acid to the [H3O+]equil.
• For a mixture of a strong acid with a weak acid,
the complete ionization of the strong acid provides
more than enough [H3O+] to shift the weak acid
equilibrium to the left so far that the weak acid’s
added [H3O+] is negligible.
• For mixtures of weak acids, you generally only
need to consider the stronger for the same
reasons, as long as one is significantly stronger
than the other and their concentrations are
similar.
Strong Bases
• The stronger the base, the

more willing it is to accept H.
 Use water as the standard acid.
• For ionic bases, practically all
units are dissociated into OH–
or accept H’s.
 Strong electrolyte
 Multi-OH strong bases
completely dissociated

Weak Bases
• In weak bases, only a small

fraction of molecules
accept H’s.
 Weak electrolyte
 Most of the weak base molecules
do not take H from water.
 Much less than 1% ionization
in water
• [HO–] << [weak base]
• Finding the pH of a weak base
solution is similar to finding the
pH of a weak acid.
Base Ionization Constant, Kb
• Base strength is measured by the size of the

equilibrium constant when it reacts with H2O
:Base + H2O  OH− + H:Base+
• The equilibrium constant is called the base
ionization constant, Kb.
– Larger Kb = stronger base

Common Weak Bases
Table 15.8 page 721

Structure of Amines

Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts
• Salts are water-soluble ionic compounds.

• Salts that contain the cation of a strong base and
an anion that is the conjugate base of a weak acid
are basic.
– NaHCO3 solutions are basic.
• Na+ is the cation of the strong base NaOH.
• HCO3− is the conjugate base of the weak acid H2CO3.
• Salts that contain cations that are the conjugate
acid of a weak base and an anion of a strong acid
are acidic.
– NH4Cl solutions are acidic.
• NH4+ is the conjugate acid of the weak base NH3.
• Cl− is the anion of the strong acid HCl.

Anions as Weak Bases
• Every anion can be thought of as the conjugate
base of an acid.
• Therefore, every anion can potentially be a base.
– A−(aq) + H2O(l)  HA(aq) + OH−(aq)
• The stronger the acid, the weaker the
conjugate base.
• An anion that is the conjugate base of a strong
acid is pH neutral.
Cl−(aq) + H2O(l)  HCl(aq) + OH−(aq)
• An anion that is the conjugate base of a weak
acid is basic.
F−(aq) + H2O(l)  HF(aq) + OH−(aq)

Relationship between Ka of an Acid and Kb
of Its Conjugate Base
• Many reference books only give tables of Ka values

because Kb values can be found from them.
When you add
equations, you
multiply the
K’s.

Cations as Weak Acids
• Some cations can be thought of as the conjugate acid

of a weak base.
– Others are the counterions of a strong base.
• Therefore, some cations can potentially be acidic.
– MH+(aq) + H2O(l)  MOH(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• The stronger the base, the weaker the
conjugate acid.
– A cation that is the counterion of a strong base is pH
neutral.
– A cation that is the conjugate acid of a weak base is
acidic.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l)  NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• Because NH3 is a weak base, the position of this equilibrium
favors the right.
Metal Cations as Weak Acids
• Cations of small, highly charged metals are

weakly acidic.
– Alkali metal cations and alkali earth metal cations are
pH neutral.
– Cations are hydrated.
Al(H2O)63+(aq) + H2O(l)  Al(H2O)5(OH)2+ (aq) + H3O+(aq)

Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic,
or Neutral
• If the salt cation is the counterion of a strong

base and the anion is the conjugate base of a
strong acid, it will form a neutral solution.
– NaCl Ca(NO3)2 KBr
• If the salt cation is the counterion of a strong
weak acid, it will form a basic solution.
– NaF Ca(C2H3O2)2 KNO2

or Neutral
• If the salt cation is the conjugate acid of a weak
strong acid, it will form an acidic solution.
– NH4Cl
• If the salt cation is a highly charged metal ion
and the anion is the conjugate base of a strong
acid, it will form an acidic solution.
– Al(NO3)3

or Neutral
• If the salt cation is the conjugate acid of a weak
weak acid, the pH of the solution depends on the
relative strengths of the acid and base.
– NH4F because HF is a stronger acid than NH4+, Ka of NH4+
is larger than Kb of the F−; therefore, the solution will be
acidic.

Ionization in Polyprotic Acids
• Because polyprotic acids ionize in steps, each H

has a separate Ka.
• Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3
• Generally, the difference in Ka values is great
enough so that the second ionization does not
happen to a large enough extent to affect the pH.
– Most pH problems just do first ionization.
– Except H2SO4  uses [H2SO4] as the [H3O+] for the
second ionization.
• [A2−] = Ka2 as long as the second ionization is
negligible.
Ionization in H2SO4
• The ionization constants for H2SO4 are as follows:

H2SO4 + H2O  HSO4 + H3O+ strong
HSO4 + H2O  SO42 + H3O+ Ka2 = 1.2 × 10−2
• For most sulfuric acid solutions, the second
ionization is significant and must be accounted for.
• Because the first ionization is complete, use the
given [H2SO4] = [HSO4−]initial = [H3O+]initial.

Strengths of Binary Acids
• The more d+ H─X d− polarized

the bond, the more acidic
the bond.
• The stronger the H─X bond, the
weaker the acid.
• Binary acid strength increases to
the right across a period.
– Acidity: H─C < H─N < H─O < H─F
• Binary acid strength increases
down the column.
– Acidity: H─F < H─Cl < H─Br < H─I

Relationship between Bond Strength and
Acidity
Bond
Energy Type of
Acid
Acid
kJ/mol
HF 565 weak
HCl 431 strong
HBr 364 strong

Strengths of Oxyacids, H–O–Y
• The more electronegative the Y atom, the stronger the
oxyacid.
– HClO > HIO
– Acidity of oxyacids decreases down a group.
• Same trend as binary acids
– Helps weaken the H–O bond.
• The larger the oxidation number of the central atom, the
stronger the oxyacid.
– H2CO3 > H3BO3
– Acidity of oxyacids increases to the right across a period.
• Opposite trend of binary acids
• The more oxygens attached to Y, the stronger the
oxyacid.
– Further weakens and polarizes the H–O bond
– HClO3 > HClO2
Relationship between Electronegativity and
Acidity
Acid Electronegativity
Ka
H─O─Y of Y
H─O─Cl 3.0 2.9 × 10−8
H─O─Br 2.8 2.0 × 10−9
H─O─I 2.5 2.3 × 10−11

Relationship between Number of Oxygens
on the Central Atom and Acidity

Lewis Acid–Base Theory
• Lewis acid–base theory focuses on transferring an

electron pair.
– Lone pair  bond
– Bond  lone pair
• Does NOT require H atoms
• The electron donor is called the Lewis base.
– Electron rich; therefore nucleophile
• The electron acceptor is called the Lewis acid.
– Electron deficient; therefore electrophile

Lewis Bases
• The Lewis base has electrons it is willing to

give away to or share with another atom.
• The Lewis base must have a lone pair of
electrons on it that it can donate.
• Anions are better Lewis bases than neutral
atoms or molecules.
– N: < N:−
• Generally, the more electronegative an atom,
the less willing it is to be a Lewis base.
– O: < S:
Lewis Acids
• They are electron deficient, either from being
attached to electronegative atom(s) or not having
an octet.
• They must have an empty orbital willing to accept
the electron pair.
• H+ has empty 1s orbital.
• B in BF3 has empty 2p orbital and an
incomplete octet.
• Many small, highly charged metal cations have
empty orbitals they can use to accept electrons.
• Atoms that are attached to highly electronegative
atoms and have multiple bonds can be
Lewis acids.
Lewis Acid–Base Reactions
• The base donates a pair of electrons to the acid.

• It generally results in a covalent bond forming
H3N: + BF3  H3N─BF3
• The product that forms is called an adduct.
• Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry acid–base
reactions are also Lewis.

Examples of Lewis Acid–Base Reactions

Examples of Lewis Acid–Base Reactions
Ag+(aq) + 2 :NH3(aq)  Ag(NH3)2+(aq)
Lewis Lewis Adduct

Acid Base

Example 15.1 Identifying Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases and
Their Conjugates
In each reaction, identify the Brønsted–Lowry acid, the Brønsted–Lowry base, the conjugate acid, and the
conjugate base.
a.
b.
Solution
a. Because H2SO4 donates a proton to H2O in this reaction, it is the acid (proton donor). After H2SO4 donates the
proton, it becomes HSO4−, the conjugate base. Because H2O accepts a proton, it is the base (proton acceptor).
After H2O accepts the proton, it becomes H3O+, the conjugate acid.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ HSO4−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Example 15.1 Identifying Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases and
Their Conjugates
Continued
Solution
b. Because H2O donates a proton to HCO3− in this reaction, it is the acid (proton donor). After H 2O donates the
proton, it becomes OH−, the conjugate base. Because HCO3− accepts a proton, it is the base (proton acceptor).
After HCO3− accepts the proton, it becomes H2CO3, the conjugate acid.
HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq)
For Practice 15.1

In each reaction, identify the Brønsted–Lowry acid, the Brønsted–Lowry base, the conjugate acid, and the
conjugate base.
a.
b.

Example 15.2 Using Kw in Calculations
Calculate [OH−] at 25 °C for each solution and determine if the solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.
a. [H3O+] = 7.5 × 10−5 M b. [H3O+] = 1.5 × 10−9 M
c. [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−7 M
Solution
a. To find [OH−] use the ion product constant. Substitute the given value for [H 3O+] and solve the equation for [OH−].
Since [H3O+] > [OH−], the solution is acidic.
b. Substitute the given value for [H3O+] and solve the acid ionization equation for [OH−].
Since [H3O+] < [OH−], the solution is basic.

Example 15.2 Using Kw in Calculations
Continued
Solution
c. Substitute the given value for [H3O+] and solve the acid ionization equation for [OH−].
Since [H3O+] = 1.0 × 10−7 and [OH−] = 1.0 × 10−7, the solution is neutral.
For Practice 15.2

Calculate [H3O+] at 25 °C for each solution and determine if the solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.
a. [OH−] = 1.5 × 10−2 M b. [OH−] = 1.0 × 10−7 M
c. [OH−] = 8.2 × 10−10 M

Example 15.3 Calculating pH from [H3O+] or [OH−]
Calculate the pH of each solution at 25 °C and indicate whether the solution is acidic or basic.
a. [H3O+] = 1.8 × 10−4 M b. [OH−] = 1.3 × 10−2 M
Solution
a. To calculate pH, substitute the given [H3O+] into the pH equation.
Since pH < 7, this solution is acidic.

Example 15.3 Calculating pH from [H3O+] or [OH−]
Continued
b. First use Kw to find [H3O+] from [OH−].
Then substitute [H3O+] into the pH expression to find pH.
Since pH > 7, this solution is basic.
For Practice 15.3

Calculate the pH of each solution and indicate whether the solution is acidic or basic.
a. [H3O+] = 9.5 × 10−9 M b. [OH−] = 7.1 × 10−3 M

Example 15.4 Calculating [H3O+] from pH
Calculate the [H3O+] for a solution with a pH of 4.80.
Solution
To find the [H3O+] from pH, start with the equation that defines pH. Substitute the given value of pH and then
solve for [H3O+]. Since the given pH value was reported to two decimal places, the [H3O+] is written to two
significant figures. (Remember that 10log x = x (see Appendix I ) . Some calculators use an inv log key to represent
this function.)
For Practice 15.4

Calculate the [H3O+] for a solution with a pH of 8.37.

Example 15.5 Finding the [H3O+] of a Weak Acid Solution
Find the [H3O+] of a 0.100 M HCN solution.
Procedure For…
Finding the pH (or [H3O+]) of a Weak Acid Solution
To solve these types of problems, follow the outlined procedure.
Solution
Step 1 Write the balanced equation for the ionization of the acid and use it as a guide to prepare an ICE
table showing the given concentration of the weak acid as its initial concentration. Leave room in
the table for the changes in concentrations and for the equilibrium concentrations. (Note that the
[H3O+] is listed as approximately zero because the autoionization of water produces a negligibly small
amount of H3O+).

Continued
Step 2 Represent the change in the concentration of H3O+ with the variable x. Define the changes in the
concentrations of the other reactants and products in terms of x. Always keep in mind the
stoichiometry of the reaction.
Step 3 Sum each column to determine the equilibrium concentrations in terms of the initial
concentrations and the variable x.

Continued
Step 4 Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations (from step 3) into the expression
for the acid ionization constant (Ka). In many cases, you can make the approximation that x is small
(as discussed in Section 14.8). Substitute the value of the acid ionization constant (from Table 15.5)
into the Ka expression and solve for x. Confirm that the x is small approximation is valid by
calculating the ratio of x to the number it was subtracted from in the approximation. The ratio should
be less than 0.05 (or 5%).
Therefore the approximation is valid.

Continued
Step 5 Determine the [H3O+] from the calculated value of x and calculate the pH if necessary.
[H3O+] = 7.0 × 10−6 M

(pH was not asked for in this problem.)
Step 6 Check your answer by substituting the computed equilibrium values into the acid ionization
expression. The calculated value of Ka should match the given value of Ka. Note that rounding errors
and the x is small approximation could result in a difference in the least significant digit when
comparing values of Ka.
Since the calculated value of Ka matches the given value, the answer is valid.
For Practice 15.5

Find the H3O+ concentration of a 0.250 M hydrofluoric acid solution.

Example 15.6 Finding the pH of a Weak Acid Solution
Find the pH of a 0.200 M HNO2 solution.
Procedure For…
Finding the pH (or [H3O+]) of a Weak Acid Solution
To solve these types of problems, follow the outlined procedure.
Solution
Step 1 Write the balanced equation for the ionization of the acid and use it as a guide to prepare an ICE
table showing the given concentration of the weak acid as its initial concentration. Leave room in
the table for the changes in concentrations and for the equilibrium concentrations. (Note that the
[H3O+] is listed as approximately zero because the autoionization of water produces a negligibly small
amount of H3O+).

Continued
Step 2 Represent the change in the concentration of H3O+ with the variable x. Define the changes in the
concentrations of the other reactants and products in terms of x. Always keep in mind the
stoichiometry of the reaction.
Step 3 Sum each column to determine the equilibrium concentrations in terms of the initial
concentrations and the variable x.

Continued
Step 4 Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations (from step 3) into the expression
for the acid ionization constant (Ka). In many cases, you can make the approximation that x is small
(as discussed in Section 14.8). Substitute the value of the acid ionization constant (from Table 15.5)
into the Ka expression and solve for x. Confirm that the x is small approximation is valid by
calculating the ratio of x to the number it was subtracted from in the approximation. The ratio should
be less than 0.05 (or 5%).
Therefore the approximation is valid (but barely so).

Continued
Step 5 Determine the [H3O+] from the calculated value of x and calculate the pH if necessary.
Step 6 Check your answer by substituting the computed equilibrium values into the acid ionization
expression. The calculated value of Ka should match the given value of Ka. Note that rounding errors
and the x is small approximation could result in a difference in the least significant digit when
comparing values of Ka.
For Practice 15.6

Find the pH of a 0.0150 M acetic acid solution.

Example 15.7 Finding the pH of a Weak Acid Solution in Cases
Where the x is small Approximation Does Not Work
Find the pH of a 0.100 M HClO2 solution.
Solution
Step 1 Write the balanced equation for the ionization of the acid and use it as a guide to prepare an ICE table
showing the given concentration of the weak acid as its initial concentration. (Note that the H 3O+
concentration is listed as approximately zero. Although a little H 3O+ is present from the autoionization
of water, this amount is negligibly small compared to the amount of HClO 2 or H3O+ formed by
the acid.)

Continued
Step 2 Represent the change in [H3O+] with the variable x. Define the changes in the concentrations of the
other reactants and products in terms of x.
Step 3 Sum each column to determine the equilibrium concentrations in terms of the initial concentrations
and the variable x.

Continued
Step 4 Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations (from step 3) into the expression for the
acid ionization constant (Ka). Make the x is small approximation and substitute the value of the acid
ionization constant (from Table 15.5) into the Ka expression. Solve for x.

Continued
Check to see if the x is small approximation is valid by calculating the ratio of x to the number it was
subtracted from in the approximation. The ratio should be less than 0.05 (or 5%).
Therefore, the x is small approximation is not valid.

Continued
Step 4a If the x is small approximation is not valid, solve the quadratic equation explicitly or use the method of
successive approximations to find x. In this case, we solve the quadratic equation.
Since x represents the concentration of H3O+, and since concentrations cannot be negative, we reject
the negative root. x = 0.028

Continued
Step 5 Determine the H3O+ concentration from the calculated value of x and calculate the pH (if necessary).
Step 6 Check your answer by substituting the calculated equilibrium values into the acid ionization expression.
The calculated value of Ka should match the given value of Ka. Note that rounding errors could result
in a difference in the least significant digit when comparing values of Ka.
For Practice 15.7

Find the pH of a 0.010 M HNO2 solution.

Example 15.8 Finding the Equilibrium Constant from pH
A 0.100 M weak acid (HA) solution has a pH of 4.25. Find Ka for the acid.
Solution
Use the given pH to find the equilibrium concentration of [H3O+]. Then write the balanced equation for the ionization of
the acid and use it as a guide to prepare an ICE table showing all known concentrations.

Continued
Use the equilibrium concentration of H3O+ and the stoichiometry of the reaction to predict the changes and
equilibrium concentration for all species. For most weak acids, the initial and equilibrium concentrations of the
weak acid (HA) are effectively equal because the amount that ionizes is usually very small compared to the initial
concentration.
Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Ka and calculate its value.

Continued
For Practice 15.8

A 0.175 M weak acid solution has a pH of 3.25. Find Ka for the acid.

Example 15.9 Finding the Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid
Find the percent ionization of a 2.5 M HNO2 solution.
Solution
To find the percent ionization, you must find the equilibrium concentration of H 3O+. Follow the procedure in Example
15.5, shown in condensed form here.
Therefore, [H3O+] = 0.034 M.

Example 15.9 Finding the Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid
Continued
Use the definition of percent ionization to calculate it. (Since the percent ionization is less than 5%, the x is small
approximation is valid.)
For Practice 15.9

Find the percent ionization of a 0.250 M HC2H3O2 solution at 25 °C.

Example 15.10 Mixtures of Weak Acids
Find the pH of a mixture that is 0.150 M in HF and 0.100 M in HClO.
Solution
The three possible sources of H3O+ ions are HF, HClO, and H2O. Write the ionization equations for the three sources
and their corresponding equilibrium constants. Since the equilibrium constant for the ionization of HF is about
12,000 times larger than that for the ionization of HClO, the contribution of HF to [H 3O+] is by far the greatest. You
can therefore just calculate the [H3O+] formed by HF and neglect the other two potential sources of H3O+.
Write the balanced equation for the ionization of HF and use it as a guide to prepare an ICE table.

Continued
Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for the acid ionization constant
(Ka). Since the equilibrium constant is small relative to the initial concentration of HF, you can make the x is small
approximation. Substitute the value of the acid ionization constant (from Table 15.5) into the Ka expression and
solve for x.
Confirm that the x is small approximation is valid by calculating

the ratio of x to the number it was subtracted from in the
approximation. The ratio should be less than 0.05 (or 5%).
Therefore, the approximation is valid (though barely so).

Continued
Determine the H3O+ concentration from the calculated value of x and find the pH.
For Practice 15.10

Find the ClO− concentration of the above mixture of HF and HClO.

Example 15.11 Finding the [OH−] and pH of a Strong Base Solution
What is the OH− concentration and pH in each solution?
a. 0.225 M KOH b. 0.0015 M Sr(OH)2
Solution
a. Since KOH is a strong base, it completely dissociates into K + and OH− in solution. The concentration of OH−
will therefore be the same as the given concentration of KOH. Use this concentration and Kw to find [H3O+].
Then substitute [H3O+] into the pH expression to find the pH.

Example 15.11 Finding the [OH−] and pH of a Strong Base Solution
Continued
b. Since Sr(OH)2 is a strong base, it completely dissociates into 1 mol of Sr 2+ and 2 mol of OH− in solution. The
concentration of OH− will therefore be twice the given concentration of Sr(OH)2.
Use this concentration and Kw to find [H3O+].
Substitute [H3O+] into the pH expression to find the pH.
For Practice 15.11

Find the [OH−] and pH of a 0.010 M Ba (OH)2 solution.

Example 15.12 Finding the [OH−] and pH of a Weak Base Solution
Find the [OH−] and pH of a 0.100 M NH3 solution.
Solution
Step 1 Write the balanced equation for the ionization of water by the base and use it as a guide to prepare an
ICE table showing the given concentration of the weak base as its initial concentration. Leave room in
the table for the changes in concentrations and for the equilibrium concentrations. (Note that you should
list the OH− concentration as approximately zero. Although a little OH is present from the autoionization
of water, this amount is negligibly small compared to the amount of OH − formed by the base.)

Continued
Step 2 Represent the change in the concentration of OH− with the variable x. Define the changes in the
concentrations of the other reactants and products in terms of x.
and the variable x.

Continued
Step 4 Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations (from step 3) into the expression for the
base ionization constant. In many cases, you can make the approximation that x is small (as discussed
in Chapter 14).
Substitute the value of the base ionization constant (from Table 15.8) into the Kb expression and
solve for x.
Confirm that the x is small approximation is valid by calculating the ratio of x to the number it was
Therefore, the approximation is valid.

Continued
Step 5 Determine the OH− concentration from the calculated value of x.
Use the expression for Kw to find [H3O+].
Substitute [H3O+] into the pH equation to find pH.
For Practice 15.12

Find the [OH−] and pH of a 0.33 M methylamine solution.

Example 15.13 Determining Whether an Anion Is Basic or pH-Neutral
Classify each anion as a weak base or pH-neutral:
a. NO3− b. NO2− c. C2H3O2−
Solution
a. From Table 15.3, we can see that NO3− is the conjugate
base of a strong acid (HNO3) and is therefore pH-neutral.
b. From Table 15.5 (or from its absence in Table 15.3), we

know that NO2− is the conjugate base of a weak acid
(HNO2) and is therefore a weak base.

Continued
c. From Table 15.5 (or from its absence in Table 15.3), we know that C2H3O2− is the conjugate base of a weak acid
(HC2H3O2) and is therefore a weak base.

Continued
For Practice 15.13
Classify each anion as a weak base or pH-neutral:
a. CHO2− b. ClO4−

Example 15.14 Determining the pH of a Solution Containing an Anion
Acting as a Base
Find the pH of a 0.100 M NaCHO2 solution. The salt completely dissociates into Na +(aq) and CHO2−(aq), and
the Na+ ion has no acid or base properties.
Solution
Step 1 Since the Na+ ion does not have any acidic or basic properties, you can ignore it. Write the balanced
equation for the ionization of water by the basic anion and use it as a guide to prepare an ICE table
showing the given concentration of the weak base as its initial concentration.

Acting as a Base
Continued
Step 2 Represent the change in the concentration of OH− with the variable x. Define the changes in the
concentrations of the other reactants and products in terms of x.
and the variable x.

Acting as a Base
Continued
Step 4 Find Kb from Ka (for the conjugate acid).
Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations (from step 3) into the expression for Kb.
In many cases, you can make the approximation that x is small.
Substitute the value of Kb into the Kb expression and solve for x.
Confirm that the x is small approximation is valid by calculating the ratio of x to the number it was

Acting as a Base
Continued
Therefore, the approximation is valid.

Acting as a Base
Continued
Step 5 Determine the OH− concentration from the calculated value of x.
Use the expression for Kw to find [H3O+].
Substitute [H3O+] into the pH equation to find pH.
For Practice 15.14

Find the pH of a 0.250 M NaC2H3O2 solution.

Example 15.15 Determining Whether a Cation Is Acidic or pH-Neutral
Classify each cation as a weak acid or pH-neutral.
a. C5H5NH+ b. Ca2+ c. Cr3+
Solution
a. The C5H5NH+ cation is the conjugate acid of a weak base and is therefore a weak acid.
b. The Ca2+ cation is the counterion of a strong base and is therefore pH-neutral (neither acidic nor basic).
c. The Cr3+ cation is a small, highly charged metal cation and is therefore a weak acid.
For Practice 15.15

Classify each cation as a weak acid or pH-neutral.
a. Li+ b. CH3NH3+ c. Fe3+

Example 15.16 Determining the Overall Acidity or Basicity of Salt
Solutions
Determine if the solution formed by each salt is acidic, basic, or neutral.
a. SrCl2 b. AlBr3 c. CH3NH3NO3
d. NaCHO2 e. NH4F
Solution
a. The Sr2+ cation is the counterion of a strong base (Sr(OH)2) and is pH-neutral. The Cl− anion is the conjugate
base of a strong acid (HCl) and is pH-neutral as well. The SrCl2 solution is therefore pH-neutral (neither acidic
nor basic).
b. The Al3+ cation is a small, highly charged metal ion (that is not an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal) and
is a weak acid. The Br− anion is the conjugate base of a strong acid (HBr) and is pH-neutral. The AlBr3 solution
is therefore acidic.

Solutions
Continued
c. The CH3NH3+ ion is the conjugate acid of a weak base (CH3NH2) and is acidic. The NO3− anion is the conjugate
base of a strong acid (HNO3) and is pH-neutral. The CH3NH3NO3 solution is therefore acidic.
d. The Na+ cation is the counterion of a strong base and is pH-neutral. The CHO2− anion is the conjugate base of a
weak acid and is basic. The NaCHO2 solution is therefore basic.

Solutions
Continued
e. The NH4+ ion is the conjugate acid of a weak base (NH3) and is acidic. The F− ion is the conjugate base of a weak
acid and is basic. To determine the overall acidity or basicity of the solution, compare the values of Ka for the
acidic cation and Kb for the basic anion. Obtain each value of K from the conjugate by using Ka × Kb = Kw.
Since Ka is greater than Kb, the solution is acidic.

Solutions
Continued
For Practice 15.16
Determine if the solution formed by each salt is acidic, basic, or neutral.
a. NaHCO3 b. CH3CH2NH3Cl c. KNO3 d. Fe(NO3)3

Example 15.17 Finding the pH of a Polyprotic Acid Solution
Find the pH of a 0.100 M ascorbic acid (H2C6H6O6) solution.
Solution
To find the pH, you must find the equilibrium concentration of H3O+. Treat the problem as a weak acid pH problem
with a single ionizable proton. The second proton contributes a negligible amount to the concentration of H 3O+ and
can be ignored. Follow the procedure from Example 15.6, shown in condensed form here. Use Ka1 for ascorbic acid
from Table 15.10.
Confirm that the x is small approximation is valid by calculating

the ratio of x to the number it was subtracted from in the
approximation. The ratio should be less than 0.05 (or 5%).
Calculate the pH from H3O+ concentration.

Example 15.17 Finding the pH of a Polyprotic Acid Solution
Continued
The approximation is valid. Therefore,
For Practice 15.17

Find the pH of a 0.050 M H2CO3 solution.

Example 15.18 Dilute H2SO4 Solutions
Find the pH of a 0.0100 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution.
Solution
Sulfuric acid is strong in its first ionization step and weak in its second. Begin by writing the equations for the two
steps. As the concentration of an H2SO4 solution becomes smaller, the second ionization step becomes more
significant because the percent ionization increases (as discussed in Section 15.6). Therefore, for a concentration of
0.0100 M, you can’t neglect the H3O+ contribution from the second step, as you can for other polyprotic acids. You
must calculate the H3O+ contributions from both steps.
The [H3O+] that results from the first ionization step is 0.0100 M (because the first step is strong). To determine
the [H3O+] formed by the second step, prepare an ICE table for the second step in which the initial concentration
of H3O+ is 0.0100 M. The initial concentration of HSO4− must also be 0.0100 M (due to the stoichiometry of the
ionization reaction).

Continued
Substitute the expressions for the equilibrium concentrations (from the table just shown) into the expression for Ka2.
In this case, you cannot make the x is small approximation because the equilibrium constant (0.012) is not small
relative to the initial concentration (0.0100).
Substitute the value of Ka2 and multiply out the expression to arrive at the standard quadratic form.

Continued
Solve the quadratic equation using the quadratic formula.
Since x represents a concentration, and since concentrations cannot be negative, we reject the negative root.
x = 0.0045
Determine the H3O+ concentration from the calculated value of x and calculate the pH. Notice that the second step
produces almost half as much H3O+ as the first step—an amount that must not be neglected. This will always be
the case with dilute H2SO4 solutions.

Continued
For Practice 15.18

Find the pH and [SO42−] of a 0.0075 M sulfuric acid solution.

Example 15.19 Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak
Diprotic Acid Solution
Find the [C6H6O62−] of the 0.100 M ascorbic acid (H2C6H6O6) solution in Example 15.17.
Solution
To find the [C6H6O62−], use the concentrations of [HC6H6O6−] and H3O+ produced by the first ionization step (as
calculated in Example 15.17) as the initial concentrations for the second step. Because of the 1:1 stoichiometry,
[HC6H6O6−] = [H3O+]. Then solve an equilibrium problem for the second step similar to that of Example 15.6,
shown in condensed form here. Use Ka2 for ascorbic acid from Table 15.10.

Example 15.19 Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak
Diprotic Acid Solution
Continued
Since x is much smaller than 2.8 × 10−3, the x is small approximation is valid. Therefore,
[C6H6O62−] = 1.6 × 10−12 M.
For Practice 15.19

Find the [CO32−] of the 0.050 M carbonic acid (H2CO3) solution in For Practice 15.17.

U.S. Fuel Consumption
• Over 85% of the energy use in the United States comes

from the combustion of fossil fuels.
– Oil, natural gas, coal
• Combustion of fossil fuels produces CO2.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
• Natural fossil fuels also contain small amounts of S that
burn to produce SO2(g).
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
• The high temperatures of combustion allow N2(g) in the
air to combine with O2(g) to form oxides of nitrogen.
N2(g) + 2 O2(g) → 2 NO2(g)

What Is Acid Rain?
• Natural rain water has a pH of 5.6.

– Naturally slightly acidic due mainly to CO2
• Rain water with a pH lower than 5.6 is called
acid rain.
• Acid rain is linked to damage in ecosystems and
structures.

What Causes Acid Rain?
• Many natural and pollutant gases dissolved in the

air are nonmetal oxides.
– CO2, SO2, NO2
• Nonmetal oxides are acidic.
CO2(g) + H2O(l)  H2CO3(aq)
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2 H2O(l)  2 H2SO4(aq)
4 NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2 H2O(l)  4 HNO3(aq)
• Processes that produce nonmetal oxide gases as
waste increase the acidity of the rain.
– Natural – volcanoes and some bacterial action
– Man made – combustion of fuel

pH of Rain in Different Regions
Figure 15.16 pg 740

Weather Patterns
• The prevailing winds in the United States travel

west to east.
• Weather patterns may cause rain to be
acidic in regions other than where the
nonmetal oxide is produced.
• Much of the Northeast United States has rain of
very low pH, even though it has very low sulfur
emissions, due in part to the general weather
patterns.

Damage from Acid Rain
• Acids react with metals and materials that contain

carbonates.
• Acid rain damages bridges, cars, and other
metallic structures.
• Acid rain damages buildings and other structures
made of limestone or cement.
• Acidifying lakes affects aquatic life.
• Soil acidity causes more dissolving of minerals
and leaching more minerals from soil, making it
difficult for trees.

Damage from Acid Rain

Acid Rain Legislation
• 1990 Clean Air Act attacks acid rain.

– Forces utilities to reduce SO2
• The result is acid rain in the Northeast stabilized
and beginning to be reduced.

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Lecture Presentation

Acids and Bases

• The cells that line your stomach produce

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Mild cases of heartburn can be cured by

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• Chronic heartburn is a problem for some people.

• GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease) is chronic leaking

• In people with GERD, the muscles separating the stomach

• Physicians diagnose GERD by attaching a pH sensor to the

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Ability to dissolve many metals

• Ability to neutralize bases

• Change blue litmus paper to red

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Binary acids have acid hydrogens attached

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Oxyacids have acid hydrogens attached to

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Ability to turn red litmus paper blue

• Ability to neutralize acids

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Indicators are chemicals that change color

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HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The H+ ions produced by the acid are so reactive

• Instead, they react with water molecules to produce

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NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH(aq)

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• The H+ from the acid combines with the OH−

• The cation from the base combines with the

acid + base → salt + water

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• It does not explain why molecular substances, such

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• It defines acids and bases based on what happens

• Any reaction involving H+ (proton) that transfers

• All reactions that fit the Arrhenius definition also fit

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• The acid is an H+ donor.

• The base is an H+ acceptor.

• In a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction, the

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• Brønsted–Lowry acids are H+ donors.

• When HCl dissolves in water, the HCl is the acid

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Cl–(aq) + H3O+(aq)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Brønsted–Lowry bases are H+ acceptors.

• When NH3 dissolves in water, the NH3(aq) is the

NH3(aq) + H2O(l)  NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Amphoteric substances can act as either an

• Water acts as base, accepting H+ from HCl.

• Water acts as acid, donating H+ to NH3.

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• One of the advantages of Brønsted–Lowry theory is that it

• The original base has an extra H+ after the reaction, so it