Engineering Metallurgy Chapter 1

DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
III-SEMESTER
ENGINEERING METALLURGY
CHAPTER NO. 1
INTRODUCTION TO
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1
CHAPTER 1:- SYLLABUS
Introduction to Engineering Metallurgy and engineering
1 . materials.
Classification, properties & applications of
2 engineering materials.
3 Difference between metals & non metals.

Mechanical properties of metal, Study of crystal
4 structure , Polymorphism & allotropy.
Macroscopic & microscopic examination,
5 Imperfections in crystal.
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CHAPTER 1:- SYLLABUS
6 Miller indices.
.
7 Mechanism of plastic deformation, slip.
8 Dislocation & twinning.
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CHAPTER-1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME
The student will be able to:
Understand the engineering metallurgy, its scope

1 and classification.
Classify the different types of materials, understand
2 their properties and applications.
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LECTURE 1:- Introduction
What is Engineering Metallurgy ?
1. The science that deals with
procedures used in extracting metals from their ores
purifying and alloying metals,
and creating useful objects from metals.
2. The study of metals and their properties in bulk and at the

atomic level.
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The metallurgical group may be divided into three large

groups
 Physical metallurgy
 Extraction metallurgy
 Process metallurgy
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refining metals and alloys.

Physical metallurgy :
The science concerned with
the physical and mechanical characteristics
of the metals and alloys.
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refining metals and alloys.

 Composition means the chemical make-up of a material.
 Structure means a description of the arrangements of

atoms or ions in a material.
 Synthesis is the process by which materials are made

from naturally occurring or other chemicals.
 Processing means different ways for shaping materials

into useful components or changing their properties.
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1. Metals and Alloys
2. Ceramics, Glasses and Glass-ceramics
3. Polymers (plastics)
4. Semiconductors
5. Composite Materials
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LECTURE 1:-
SR MATERIAL PROPERTIES APPLICATIONS
NO.
1 Metals and Alloys Castable, machinable Automobile engine blocks
Gray cast iron vibration damping
2 Ceramics and Glasses Optically transparent Window glass
SiO2-Na2O-CaO
Thermally insulating
3 Polymers Easily formed into Food packaging

Polyethylene thin, flexible, airtight
film
4 Semiconductors Transistors and Unique electrical

Silicon integrated circuits behavior
5 Composites Good Shock resistance Cutting tools for High
Carbide -cobalt (WC-Co) hardness, yet Tungsten
carbide machining
Fig 2.1 Turning operation 10
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LECTURE 1:- Introduction: Main parts of a lathe
 Out of the 92 naturally occurring elements 70 are metals

and about 22 are nonmetals.
 Some elements show properties of both metals and non

metals. They are called metalloids.
 Only some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are

found in the free state.
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LECTURE 1:- Introduction: Main parts of a lathe
 Most metals are found in the combined states as oxides,

sulphides, carbonates, silicates etc.
 Some non metals are found in the free state like helium,
neon, argon etc.
 Some nonmetals are found in free and combined states

like sulphur, phosphorus etc.
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LECTURE 2:- Metals Classification
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LECTURE 2:- Metals
Ferrous metals
 These are metals and alloys containing a high

proportion of the element iron.
 They are the strongest materials available.
 They are used for applications where high strength is

required at relatively low cost and where weight is not of
primary importance.
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LECTURE 2:- Metals
Ferrous metals
 Examples of ferrous metals such as :
i. Bridge building,
ii. The structure of large buildings,
iii. Railway lines,
iv. Locomotives and rolling stock and the bodies
v. Highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.

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LECTURE 2:- Non – ferrous metals
 These materials refer to the remaining metals known to

mankind.
 The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials

as they lack mechanical strength.
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 They are used where their special properties such as

corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity are required.
 Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors

and, together with sheet zinc and sheet lead, are use as
roofing materials.
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 They are mainly used with other metals to improve their

strength.
 Some widely used non-ferrous metals and alloys are

classified as shown in figure.
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LECTURE 2:- Non – metallic (synthetic materials )
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Non – metallic (synthetic materials )
 These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in

nature.
 Although they are manufactured from natural

substances such as oil, coal and clay.
 Some typical examples are classified as shown in

figure.
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 They combine good corrosion resistance with ease of

manufacture by moulding to shape and relatively low cost.
 Synthetic adhesives are also being used for the joining

of metallic components even in highly stressed
applications.
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LECTURE 2:- Non – metallic (Natural materials )
Non – metallic (Natural materials )
Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be listed

here to give a basic introduction to some typical
applications.
 Wood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite

material used for the manufacture of casting patterns.
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Rubber :
 This is used for hydraulic and compressed air hoses and

oil seals.
 Naturally occurring latex is too soft for most engineering

uses.
 It is used widely for vehicle tyres when it is compounded

with carbon black.
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Glass :
 This is a hardwearing, abrasion-resistant material with

excellent weathering properties.
 It is made by melting together the naturally occurring

materials : silica (sand), limestone (calcium carbonate ) and
soda (sodium carbonate).
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 It is used for electrical insulators, laboratory equipment,

optical components in measuring instruments.
 In the form of fibers, is used to reinforce plastics.
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Emery :
 This is a widely used abrasive and is a naturally occurring

aluminum oxide.
 Nowadays it is produced synthetically to maintain uniform

quality and performance.
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Ceramic:
 These are produced by baking naturally occurring clays at

high temperatures after moulding to shape.
 They are used for high – voltage insulators and high

temperature – resistant cutting tool tips.
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Diamonds:
 These can be used for cutting tools for operation at high

speeds for metal finishing where surface finish is greater
importance.
 For example, internal combustion engine pistons and

bearings. They are also used for dressing grinding wheels.
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 Oils : Used as bearing lubricants, cutting fluids and fuels.
 Silicon : This is used as an alloying element and also for the

manufacture of semiconductor devices.
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LECTURE 2:- Composite materials (composites )
Composite materials (composites )
 These are materials made up from a combination of

different materials.
 An example of this was the reinforcement of air-dried

bricks by mixing the clay with straw.
 This helped to reduce cracking caused by shrinkage

stresses as the clay dried out.
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 These are materials made up from, or composed of, a

combination of different materials to take overall advantage
of their different properties.
 In man-made composites to obtain improved properties

was understood by ancient civilizations.
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 An example of this was the reinforcement of air-dried

bricks by mixing the clay with straw.
 This helped to reduce cracking caused by shrinkage

stresses as the clay dried out.
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 In more recent times, horse hair was used to reinforce

the plaster used on the walls and ceiling of buildings.
 Again this was to reduce the onset of drying cracks.
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 Nowadays, there is a growth of the plastics industry

and the development of high-strength fibers.
 Due to this a vast range combinations of materials is

available for use in composites.
 For example, carbon fiber reinforced frames for tennis

rackets and shafts for golf clubs have revolutionized
these sports.
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Emery :
 This is a widely used abrasive and is a naturally occurring

aluminum oxide.
 Nowadays it is produced synthetically to maintain uniform

quality and performance.
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LECTURE 1:- Ceramic
Ceramic:
 These are produced by baking naturally occurring clays at

high temperatures after moulding to shape.
 They are used for high – voltage insulators and high –

temperature – resistant cutting tool tips.
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LECTURE 3:- Mechanical properties of metal
These properties are concerned with the following properties :
1. Tensile strength TS
 It is the ability of a material to withstand tensile

( stretching )loads without breaking.
 As the force of gravity acting on the load is trying to stretch

the rod, the rod is said to be in tension.
 Therefore, the material from which the rod is made needs

to have sufficient tensile strength to resist the pull of the load.
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Strength: is the ability of a material to resist applied

forces without fracturing.
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2. Toughness
 It is the ability of the materials to withstand bending or it

is the application of shear stresses without fracture.
 so the rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter,

therefore they are tough.
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Malleability
It is the capacity of substance to withstand deformation
under compression without rupture
or
the malleable material allows a useful amount of plastic
deformation to occur under compressive loading before
fracture occurs.
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Hardness
 It is the ability of a material to withstand scratching
(abrasion) or indentation by another hard body , it is an
indication of the wear resistance of the material.
 For example shows a hardened steel ball being

pressed first into a hard material and then into a soft
material by the same load.
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5. Ductility
It refer to the capacity of substance to undergo
deformation under tension without rupture
Ex. wire drawing tube drawing operation.
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6. Stiffness
It is the measure of a material's ability not to deflect

under an applied load.
For example, although steel is very much stronger than

cast iron, then the cast iron is preferred for machine
beds and frames,
because it is more rigid and less likely to deflect with

consequent loss of alignment and accuracy.
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Stiffness (rigidity):
(a) The tested materials deflect under a light load
(b) The tested materials deflect under a heavy load. 45
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7. Brittleness
 It is the property of a material that shows little or no

plastic deformation before fracture when a force is
applied.
 Also it is usually said as the opposite of ductility and

malleability.
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8. Elasticity
 It is the ability of a material to deform under load and

return to its original size and shape when the load is
removed.
 If it is made from an elastic material it will be the same

length before and after the load is applied.
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All materials posses elasticity to some degree and each

has its own elastic limits
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9. Plasticity
 This property is the exact opposite to elasticity, while the

ductility and malleability are particular cases of the property
of the plasticity .
 It is the state of a material which has been loaded

beyond its elastic limit so as to cause the material to deform
permanently.
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LECTURE 3:- Allotropy
Allotropy or allotropism (derived from the Greek

words allos meaning "other" and tropos meaning
"manner" or in this case "form") is the property of
some chemical elements to exist in two or more
different forms, known as allotropes of these
elements.
Ex. Diamond and graphite are different forms of the
carbon.
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LECTURE 3:- Polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability of a solid material to exist

in more than one form or crystal structure.
Polymorphism can potentially be found in any

crystalline material including polymer mineral and
crystal
Iron is having in two forms as alpha iron and gamma

iron.
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LECTURE 4:- Crystalline Structure
 Structure in which atoms are located at regular and

recurring positions in three dimensions
 Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of atoms that is

repeated
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LECTURE 4:- Crystalline Structure
 The pattern may be replicated millions of times within a

given crystal.
 Characteristic structure of virtually all metals, as well as

many ceramics and some polymers.
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LECTURE 4:- Three Crystal Structures in Metals
 Body-centered cubic
 Face centered cubic
 Hexagonal close-packed
Three types of crystal structure in metals.

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LECTURE 4:- Crystal Structures for Common Metals
Room temperature crystal structures for some of the

common metals:
• Body-centered cubic (BCC)

–Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
• Face-centered cubic (FCC)

–Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
• Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

–Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
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LECTURE 4:- Polymorphism & allotropy
 Polymorphism is the ability of a solid material to exist

in more than one form or crystal structure.
 Polymorphism can potentially be found in any

crystalline material including polymers, minerals or
metals.
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 Allotropy is the property of some chemical elements to

exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of
these elements.
 For example, carbon has 3 common allotropes: diamond,

where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a
tetrahedral lattice arrangement.
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 Graphite, where the carbon atoms are bonded together in

sheets of a hexagonal lattice, and
 Fullerenes, where the carbon atoms are bonded together

in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations.
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LECTURE 5:- Imperfections in crystal
Point defects are of zero dimensional i.e. atomic disorder

is restricted to point-like regions.
Thermodynamically stable compared with other kind of

defects.
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In ionic crystals, defects can form on the condition of

charge neutrality. Two possibilities are:
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Line defects or Dislocations are abrupt change in atomic

order along a line.
 They occur if an incomplete plane inserted between

perfect plane so atoms or when vacancies are aligned in a
line.
 A dislocation is the defect responsible for the

phenomenon of slip by which most metals deform plastically.
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 Dislocations occur in high densities(108-1010m2),and are

intimately connected to almost all mechanical properties
which are infact structure-sensitive.
 Dislocation form during plastic deformation, solidification

or due to thermal stresses arising from rapid cooling.
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Line defects –Edge dislocation
 It is also called as Taylor-Orowan dislocation.
 It will have regions of compressive and tensile stresses

on either side of the plane containing dislocation.
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Line defects –Screw dislocation

 It is also called as Burger’s dislocation.
 It will have regions of shear stress around the dislocation

line
 For positive screw dislocation, dislocation line direction
is parallel to Burger’s vector, and vice versa.
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A negative dislocation
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Bulk or Volume defects
 Volume defects are three-dimensional in nature.
 These defects are introduced, usually, during

processing and fabrication operations like casting,
forming etc.
E.g.: Pores, Cracks, Foreign particles
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LECTURE 5:- Miller indices
A system of notation is required to identify particular

direction(s) or plane(s) to characterize the arrangement
of atoms in a unit cell.
 Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to

related formulas from analytical geometry –simple to use.
 Use of reciprocals avoids the complication of infinite

intercepts
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LECTURE 6:- Miller indices
 Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the

same label can be applied to any plane with a similar
stacking pattern.
 Plane (111) always steps the same way regardless of

crystal system
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LECTURE 6:- Miller indices -Direction
 A vector of convenient length is placed parallel to the

required direction.
 The length of the vector projection on each of three

axes are measured in terms of unit cell dimensions
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LECTURE 6:- Miller indices -Direction
 These three numbers are made to smallest integer

values, known as indices, by multiplying or dividing by a
common factor
 The three indices are enclosed in square brackets,

[uvw].
 A family of directions is represented by <uvw>
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LECTURE 6:- Miller indices -Plane
 Determine the intercepts of the plane along the

crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions.
 If plane is passing through origin, there is a need to

construct a plane parallel to original plane.
 Take the reciprocals of these intercept numbers
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LECTURE 6:- Miller indices -Plane
 Clear fractions
 Reduce to set of smallest integers
 The three indices are enclosed in parenthesis, (hkl).
 A family of planes is represented by {hkl}
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LECTURE 6:- Miller indices -Examples
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LECTURE 7:- Elastic deformation
In elastic deformation
 A limited distortion of the crystal lattice is produced,
 but the atoms do not move permanently from their

ordered positions,
 and as soon as the stress is removed the distortion

disappeared.
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LECTURE 7:- Plastic deformation
When metal is stressed beyond the elastic limit
 Plastic deformation takes place
 and there must, clearly, be some movement of the

atoms in to new positions,
 since considerable permanent distortion can be

produced.
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LECTURE 7:- Mechanism of plastic deformation
 If the stress is removed elastic strain is recovered but the

material will be left in a state of permanent, or plastic, strain.
 The mechanism of plastic deformation is not the same for

all classes of materials.
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LECTURE 7:- Mechanism of plastic deformation
 It is necessary to consider the various materials groups

separately.
 Plastic deformation in metals may take place by the

process of slip, or by twinning
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LECTURE 8:- Slip
Slip
It is the deformation done by one layer or plan of atoms

sliding over another.
An early theory evolved to explain plastic deformation in

metals was the 'block slip' theory.
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LECTURE 8:- Slip
 In this it was postulated that when the yield stress of

the metal was exceeded plastic deformation took place by
the movement of large blocks of atoms.
 These atoms slide relative to one another across

certain planes — slip planes — within the crystal.
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LECTURE 8:- Slip
Plastic deformation according to the 'block slip' theory,

(a) Original unstressed condition,
(b) Elastic strain only. Specimen will revert to (a) when the stress is
removed,
(c) Elastic and plastic deformation. When stress is removed the
specimen will appear as in (d). 81
(d) Unstressed. No elastic strain but permanent plastic strain remains.
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LECTURE 8:- Slip
If the slip planes were aligned either normal to, or parallel

to, the stress axis, failure occurred in a brittle manner with
negligible plastic deformation.
If, however, the slip planes were inclined at some angle, θ,

other than 0° or 90°, plastic yielding took place before
failure.
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LECTURE 8:- Slip
Figure -Effect of stress on single crystals of hexagonal metal.
(a) Slip planes normal to the applied stress; brittle fracture; no slip.
(b) Slip planes in line with the applied stress; brittle fracture; no slip.
(c) Slip planes inclined to the applied stress; slip and plastic deformation
caused by shear force acting on slip planes.
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LECTURE 8:- Twinning
Twinning
 In addition to deformation by slip, some metals, notably

zinc, tin and iron, deform by a process known as
"twinning".
 The mechanism of this process is illustrated in Figure.
 In deformation by slip all atoms in one block move the

same distance, but in deformation by twinning.
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Figure : The formation of "Mechanical Twins".

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 Atoms in each successive plane within a block will

move different distances, with the effect of altering the
direction of the lattice.
 so that each half of the crystal becomes a mirror image

of the other half.
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References Books:
1. Introduction to Engineering Metallurgy by Dr. B K

Agrawal, Tata McGraw-Hill
2. Introduction to Physical Metallurgy by Avner, Tata

McGraw-Hill
3. Engineering Materials & Metallurgy, Srinivasan, Tata

Mc-Graw Hill
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LECTURE 8:-
THANK YOU
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Engineering Metallurgy Chapter 1

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DEPARTMENT OF

3 Difference between metals & non metals.

7 Mechanism of plastic deformation, slip.

8 Dislocation & twinning.

The student will be able to:

Understand the engineering metallurgy, its scope

What is Engineering Metallurgy ?

1. The science that deals with

procedures used in extracting metals from their ores

purifying and alloying metals,

and creating useful objects from metals.

2. The study of metals and their properties in bulk and at the

The metallurgical group may be divided into three large

refining metals and alloys.

The science concerned with

the physical and mechanical characteristics

of the metals and alloys.

refining metals and alloys.

 Structure means a description of the arrangements of

 Synthesis is the process by which materials are made

 Processing means different ways for shaping materials

1. Metals and Alloys

2. Ceramics, Glasses and Glass-ceramics

3 Polymers Easily formed into Food packaging

4 Semiconductors Transistors and Unique electrical

 Out of the 92 naturally occurring elements 70 are metals

 Some elements show properties of both metals and non

 Only some metals like gold, silver, platinum etc are

 Most metals are found in the combined states as oxides,

 Some nonmetals are found in free and combined states

 These are metals and alloys containing a high

 They are the strongest materials available.

 They are used for applications where high strength is

 Examples of ferrous metals such as :

ii. The structure of large buildings,

iii. Railway lines,

iv. Locomotives and rolling stock and the bodies

v. Highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.

 These materials refer to the remaining metals known to

 The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials

 They are used where their special properties such as

 Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors

 They are mainly used with other metals to improve their

 Some widely used non-ferrous metals and alloys are

Non – metallic (synthetic materials )

 These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in

 Although they are manufactured from natural

 Some typical examples are classified as shown in

 They combine good corrosion resistance with ease of

 Synthetic adhesives are also being used for the joining

Non – metallic (Natural materials )

Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be listed

 Wood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite

 This is used for hydraulic and compressed air hoses and

 Naturally occurring latex is too soft for most engineering

 It is used widely for vehicle tyres when it is compounded

 This is a hardwearing, abrasion-resistant material with

 It is made by melting together the naturally occurring

 It is used for electrical insulators, laboratory equipment,

 In the form of fibers, is used to reinforce plastics.

 This is a widely used abrasive and is a naturally occurring

 Nowadays it is produced synthetically to maintain uniform

 These are produced by baking naturally occurring clays at

 They are used for high – voltage insulators and high