Signal conditioning

Signal conditioning circuits are used to process the

output signal from sensors of a measurement system to
be suitable for the next stage of operation
Function of the signal conditioning
The circuits include the following items: Signal
amplification (opamp),Filtering (opamp), Interfacing
with mP (ADC), Protection(Zener & photo isolation),
Linearization, Current – voltage change circuits,
resistance change circuits (Wheatstone bridge), error
compensation
 Signal conditioning processes

• Filtering.
• Amplifying.
• Electrical Isolation.
• Excitation.
• Linearization.
• Cold Junction Compensation.
• Attenuation.
• Multiplexing.
 Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers are the basic element of
many signal conditioning modules
Generally the opamp has the following properties:
Gain: being of the order greater than 100000, ideally =
infinite
Input impedance: ideally infinite
output impedance: ideally zero; practical values 20-
100W
Opamp Circuit Configurations
Opamp Circuit Configurations
 Ideal Op Amp
VDD
i v VSS  v0  VDD
+
- vo
i v
VSS

1) v0  Av  v  v 
The open-loop gain, Av, is very large, approaching infinity.

2) i  i  0
The current into the inputs are zero.
Ideal Op Amp with Negative Feedback
v +
vo
v -

Network

Golden Rules of Op Amps:

1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to

make the voltage difference between the inputs zero.

2. The inputs draw no current.

 Non-inverting Amplifier
vi v Closed-loop voltage gain
+ vo
v vo
- AF 
vi
R2
R1 R1
vi  v  v  vo
R1  R2

vo R2
AF   1 
vi R1
 Unity-Gain Buffer
vi v Closed-loop voltage gain
+
v vo vo
- AF 
vi

vi  v  v  vo

vo
AF  1
vi

Used as a "line driver" that transforms a high input impedance

(resistance) to a low output impedance. Can provide substantial
current gain.
 Inverting Amplifier
Current into op amp is zero R2
ii
ii
v  v  0 vi v
- vo
R1 v
v  0 vi +
ii  i 
R1 R1

0  v0 v0
ii   vi v0
R2 R2 
R1 R2

vo R
AF   2
vi R1
 Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
Current into op amp is zero
i1 R1 v
v1 -
v  v v2
v vo
+
R1
v1  v
i1  R2
R1
v  v0
i1 
R2 v1  v v  v0

R2 R1 R2
v  v2
R1  R2 R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R1  R2

R1 R2
 Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R  R2
 1 v1
i1 R1 v
R1 R2 - vo
v
v2 +
2
R1
R2 R2 R R2
v0   v1  v2  2
v2
R1 R1  R2 R1  R1  R2 

R2 R2  R2 
v0   v1  1   v2
R1 R1  R2  R1 
R2
v0   v2  v1 
R1
Current-to-Voltage Converter
v
+
vo
v - ii  i f
ii
v  v  0
RF if
0  v0  i f RF
v0  ii RF

Transresistance  v0 ii   RF

 Photodiode Circuit
ii  25 A per milliwatt of incident radiation
v
+
v vo
-
ii At 50 mW
h

if ii  50  25 106  1.25mA
RF
Assume RF  3.2k

v0  ii RF  1.25  103  3.2  103  4V

 Non-ideal Op Amp
• Output voltage is limited by supply voltage(s)
• Finite gain (~105)
• Limited frequency response
• Finite input resistance (not infinite)
• Finite output resistance (not zero)
• Finite slew rate slew rate  dv0 (t ) dtMAX
• Input bias currents
• Input bias current offset
• Input offset voltage
• Finite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Multiplexing : Sharing a Medium

18
Introduction
Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one
signal at any moment in time.
For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must
somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total
bandwidth.
The current techniques that can accomplish this include
•frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
•time division multiplexing (TDM)
•Synchronous vs statistical

•wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

•code division multiplexing (CDM) 19
 Multiplexing

Multiplexor (MUX)
Demultiplexor (DEMUX)
Sometimes just called a MUX

20
 Multiplexing
• Two or more simultaneous transmissions
on a single circuit.
– Transparent to end user.
• Multiplexing costs less.

21
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each
“user” or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are
transmitted at the same time, each using different frequencies.
A multiplexor accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each
device.
The multiplexor is attached to a high-speed communications
line.
A corresponding multiplexor, or demultiplexor, is on the end
of the high-speed line and separates the multiplexed signals. 22
23
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Analog signaling is used to transmits the signals.
Broadcast radio and television, cable television, and the
AMPS cellular phone systems use frequency division
multiplexing.
This technique is the oldest multiplexing technique.
Since it involves analog signaling, it is more susceptible to
noise.

24
25
Time Division Multiplexing
Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time on a medium among users.
Digital signaling is used exclusively.
Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:
1. Synchronous time division multiplexing, and
2. Statistical, or asynchronous time division multiplexing.

26
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
The original time division multiplexing.
The multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in a
round-robin fashion and transmit the data in a never ending
pattern.
T-1 and ISDN telephone lines are common examples of
synchronous time division multiplexing.

27
28
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices,
then the multiplexor must either sample the incoming data
stream from that device more often than it samples the other
devices, or buffer the faster incoming stream.
If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor must still
insert a piece of data from that device into the multiplexed
stream.

29
30
Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 5

31
 Synchronous time division multiplexing

So that the receiver may stay synchronized with the incoming

data stream, the transmitting multiplexor can insert alternating
1s and 0s into the data stream.

32
Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
Three types popular today:
•T-1 multiplexing (the classic)
•ISDN multiplexing
•SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)

33
The T1 (1.54 Mbps) multiplexor stream is a continuous series
of frames of both digitized data and voice channels.

24 separate 64Kbps channels

34
The ISDN multiplexor stream is also a continuous stream of
frames. Each frame contains various control and sync info.

35
SONET – massive data rates

36
 Synchronous TDM

• Very popular
• Line will require as much bandwidth as all the
bandwidths of the sources

37
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
A statistical multiplexor transmits only the data from active
workstations (or why work when you don’t have to).
If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the
multiplexed stream.
A statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams
and creates a frame containing only the data to be transmitted.

38
39
To identify each piece of data, an address is included.

40
If the data is of variable size, a length is also included.

41
More precisely, the transmitted frame contains a collection
of data groups.

42
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
A statistical multiplexor does not require a line over as high a
speed line as synchronous time division multiplexing since
STDM does not assume all sources will transmit all of the
time!
Good for low bandwidth lines (used for LANs)
Much more efficient use of bandwidth!

43
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM)
Give each message a different wavelength (frequency)
Easy to do with fiber optics and optical sources

44
Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM)
Dense wavelength division multiplexing is often called just
wavelength division multiplexing
Dense wavelength division multiplexing multiplexes multiple
data streams onto a single fiber optic line.
Different wavelength lasers (called lambdas) transmit the
multiple signals.
Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a
different rate from the other signals.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing combines many (30,
40, 50, 60, more?) onto one fiber.
45
46
47
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Old but now new method
Also known as code division multiple access (CDMA)
An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to
transmit on the same frequencies at the same time using
different codes
Used for mobile communications

48
Code Division Multiplexing
An advanced technique that allows multiple devices to
transmit on the same frequencies at the same time.
Each mobile device is assigned a unique 64-bit code (chip
spreading code)
To send a binary 1, mobile device transmits the unique code
To send a binary 0, mobile device transmits the inverse of
code

49
Code Division Multiplexing
Receiver gets summed signal, multiplies it by receiver code,
adds up the resulting values
Interprets as a binary 1 if sum is near +64
Interprets as a binary 0 if sum is near –64

50
51
Optoisolator
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• Microprocessor-based personal computers (PCs) are used

extensively to implement direct digital control in the process
industries.
• These familiar desktop computers are designed much like the
system shown in upcoming Figure, using a bus that consists of
the data lines, address lines, and control lines.
• All communication with the processor is via these bus lines.
This includes essential equipment such as RAM, ROM, disk,
and CD-ROM.
• Special PCBs called data-acquisition systems (DASs) have been
developed for the purpose of providing for input and output
of analog data.
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• Fig: An ADC can be

interfaced directly to
the computer bus if
it has tri-state outputs.
Address decoding is
required so the
ADC can be operated
by computer software.
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• The PC also connects the bus lines to a number of printed

circuit board (PCB) sockets, using an industry standard
configuration of how the bus lines are connected to the
socket. These sockets are referred to as expansion slots.
• DAS Hardware
• The hardware features of a general data-acquisition system
are shown in upcoming Figure . Although there is variation
from manufacturer to manufacturer, the system shown in this
figure and described herein demonstrates the essential
features of DASs.
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
• Fig: Typical layout of a data-acquisition board for use in a
personal computer expansion slot.
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• ADC and S/H The DAS typically has a high-speed, successive

approximation type ADC and a fast S/H circuit.
• Whenever the DAS is requested to obtain a data sample, the S/H is
automatically incorporated into the process.
• Analog Multiplexer The analog multiplexer (MUX) allows the DAS to select
data from a number of different sources. The MUX has a number of input
channels, each of which is connected to a different analog input voltage
source.
• Address Decoder/Command Processor The computer can select to input
a sample from a given channel by sending an appropriate selection on the
address lines and control lines of the computer bus.
• DAC and Latch For output purposes, the DAS often includes a latch and
DAC. The address decoder/command processor is used to latch data
written to the DAS, which is then converted to an appropriate analog
signal by the DAC.
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• DAS Software
• The process of selecting a channel and initiating a data input
from that channel involves some interface between the
computer and the DAS.
• This interface is facilitated by software that the computer
executes. The software can be written by the user, but is often
also provided by the DAS manufacturer in the form of
programs on disk.
• Figure is a flowchart of the basic sequence of operations that
must occur when a sample is required from the DAS.
 DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

• Fig: Software for data acquisition involves operations to start

the ADC, test the EOC, and input the data.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL DATA

• Digitized Value
• Consider first analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) of analog
data into a digital format. The format of the ADC output is
an n-bit binary representation of the data.
• With n-bits it is possible to represent 2^n values, including
zero. There is a finite resolution of the physical data being
represented of one part in 2^n, and that means we now are
ignorant about the value of the variable after it has been
converted into the binary representation.
• Sampled Data Systems: For the control system to function
correctly, certain conditions must be assumed about
variations between samples. That is what sampled data
systems are all about.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL DATA

• Sampling Rate The key issue with respect to

sampling in a computer-based controller is the rate
at which samples must be taken.
• There is a maximum sampling rate in any system—
that is, the time required to take a sample (ADC
conversion time) plus the time required to solve the
controller equations to determine the appropriate
output (program execution time).
• There is a minimum sampling rate in any system that
depends on the nature of the time variation of the
sampled variable.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL DATA

• Linearization:
• In many cases, the input binary number and
the controlled variable are not linearly related.
In such cases, it is necessary to execute a
program that will linearize the binary number
so that it is proportional to the controlled
variable value.