12.

1 METABOLIC
PROCESS AMONG
LIVING THINGS
Metabolism
Metabolism
The entirely of all the chemical activities that an
organism performs.
In Metabolism energy is usually consumed when
complex molecules are built, and released when
complex molecules are broken down.
A cells metabolism involves thousands of reactions that occur in a
cell.
These reactions are arranged as intersecting METABOLLIC
PATHWAYS.
A METABOLLIC PATHWAYS begins with a specific molecule which is
altered in a series of steps resulting to the production of a certain
product
*Major pathway of CATABOLISM is cellular respiration
in which the sugar,glucose and other organic fuels are
broken down in the presence of oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide and water.

* ANABOLIC PATHWAY occur when complex molecules

are built using energy. The complex molecules are used
by the body for all its activities. It includes the synthesis
of compounds such as DNA,RNA and proteins.
 CATABOLISM
Energy is obtained from the breakdown of larger
molecules into smaller ones. In this process,energy is
released.

HYDROLYSIS-is an example of a catabolic reaction in

which a compound react with water.
ANABOLISM
Energy is required to build larger molecules. This is
necessary for cellular growth and repair.
 Metabolism
Can be categorized into

catabolism and anabolism

Break down Regulated by

Larger molecule into Smaller molecules

use

to release
energy
to create
NUTRITION
NUTRITION
Refers to the activity by which living things obtain raw materials
from the environment and transport them into their cells.

Nutrients-are the chemical substances that organisms need in

order to grow and function properly.

Carbohydrates,proteins,fats and vitamins are called organic

nutrient.
Minerals and water
*Many animals with simple body plans have a digestive
comparment with a single opening. This pouch is called the
Gastrointestinal cavity, which functions in digestion as well as
in the distribution of nutrients throughout the body.

*Digestion occur in the digestive track or alimentary canal

which begins at the mouth and moves out throughout the
anus.
 GAS
EXCHANGE
GAS EXCHANGE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
is an organ system associated with respiration (breathing) or gas
exchange
The structure of a respiratory system depends on the size of the
animal and on whether it lives in water or in land.
Respiration
- is an exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and its
environment
 TWO MAJOR PROCESS OF RESPIRATION
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
 is the exchange of gases between lungs and the red blood cells

INTERNAL RESPIRATION
is the exchange of gases between the red blood cells and
cells that makes up the various body tissues
Air enters the nose, where it is warmed and humidified
before entering the lungs. When the air reaches the alveoli,
the oxygen diffuses into the blood into the capillaries that
surrounds the alveoli. Cells use this oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide I cellular respiration.

In the blood oxygen quickly binds with the hemoglobin,

the protein in red blood cells. Hemoglobin soaks up oxygen
effectively . The red blood cells then give up their oxygen
to the cells of body tissues where it is used I metabolism.
Oxygen concentration in the body cells is low but carbon
dioxide is high.
Carbon dioxide is a waste product that must be eliminated
from the cells.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood in the alveoli in the
lungs. The carbon dioxide is exhaled with water vapor.
Circulation
Circulation
DIFFUSION
 is involved in the movement of important molecules such as gases and
nutrients into and out of cells in simple animals that lacks a distinct circulatory
system.
Example: sponges, rotifers, jellies and comb jellies (Ctenophora)
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
is one of the transport systems through which nutrients, gases, and
other molecules are transported within the body of animals.
Other animals have circulatory system that moves fluid between each cell’s
immediate surroundings and the tissues where exchange of the materials with
the environment occurs
TWO FORM OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- in which the circulatory fluid bathes the organs directly in these
animals
HEMOLYMPH
- the circulatory fluid.
- Body movements help circulate the hemolymph.
HEMOCOEL
- the system of cavities between the organs of arthropods and mollusks through
which the blood circulate
Example :
- Arthropods and other mollusks
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
blood is confined to a network of vessels where it is circulated to
and from the heart.
Example: annelids and vertebrate (including humans).
 Humans and other vertebrates have a cardiovascular
system comprised of heart and blood vessels that circulate blood
throughout the body.
Natural selection has modified the cardio vascular systems of
different vertebrae in accordance with their heart level of activity.

The hearts of vertebrate contain two or more muscular chambers.

Atria- the chamber that receive blood entering the heart
Ventricles- the chamber that responsible for pumping blood out of the heart

The blood is part of circulatory system that supplies the body with
the nutrients needed to generate energy. The circulatory system also
helps maintain constant body temperature, and carries cells which
help the body from disease. All of these function help the body
maintain homeostasis which is essential to survival
The blood is part of circulatory system that supplies the body with
the nutrients needed to generate energy.
The circulatory system also helps maintain constant body
temperature, and carries cells which help the body from disease. All
of these function help the body maintain homeostasis which is
essential to survival
HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS
refers to the ability of the body or a cell to seek and maintain
a condition of equilibrium or stability within
its internal environment when dealing with external changes.
An animal’s body has an amazing ability to survive even in
harsh condition.
The cells maintain a biological balance known as homeostasis
by regulating which substancs get in and out of the cell. If
homeostasis is dirupted, cells suffer and sometimes die. This
process maintain the internal condition so that the cell can work
at optimum level.
 Even though an organisnm’s external environment may
change, the organism must maintain a stable internal
environment to survive. This is because the life proccesses
of organisms involve many chemical reactions that can
occur only in balanced environment.
 Skin- regulates body temperature through
H evaporation of water.
O
Hypothalamus- regulates body temperatures, blood
M pressures, heat rate, hunger, and thirst.
E
O Pancreas- regulates blood sugar by releasing the
hormones insulin and glcagon into blood
S
T
A Kidneys- maintain water balance by filtering blood

S
I Blood- maintains constant body temperature by
distributing heat throughout the body
S
Excretion
EXCRETION
Whether an animal lives on land, in saltwater, or in
freshwater, water balance depends on the regulation of
solute movement between internal fluids and the external
environment. This movement involve the excretory system.
Animals across a wide range of species produce a fluid waste
called urine
During normal metabolism, cells produce wastes such as
carbon dioxide and urea.
When the body breaks down excess amino acids, other
metabolic wastes, especially nitrogen compounds in the
form of ammonia, are released.
The body is able to make ammonia by combining it
with carbon dioxide in the liver to form a less toxic
compound called urea.
Some urea is eliminated from the body through the
skin is perspiration, which is a mixture of water,
minerals and urea.
Water, mineral, salts, and urea are stored in the
bladder as urine until they are eliminated.
 Filtration- the excretory
tubule collects filtrate from
the blood. Water and solutes
are forced by blood pressure
across selectively permeable
membranes of a cluster of
capillaries into the excretory
tubule
Excretion- the altered
filtrate (urine) leaves the
system and the body.
Reabsorption- the transport
epithelium reclaims valuable
substances from the filtrate
and returns them to the body
fluids.
Secretion- other substances
such as toxins and excess ions
are extracted from body fluids
and added to the contents of
the excretory tubule.
Immune
System
Immune System
The immune system keeps harmful agents
out of the body and attack those that manage
to enter. Your immune system is you body's
main defense againt pathogens.
 Pathogens
are infectious agents that cause disease. For a pathogen,
an animal body is the ideal habitat, offering a readily
available source of nutrients and a means of transport to a
new hosts and the environment.
Immune System
• Your immune system produces cells that recognize, attack, destroy and
remember each type of pathogen that enters the body. Defense
mechanism are also found in all animals. Your skin is your first line of
defense. It forms a barrier that few pathogen can get through. If the
pathogens manage to get through and enters the body, other
nonspecific defense will be activated. This process id called innate
immunity. A second defense system, found only in vertebrates, is
acquired immunity also known as adaptive immunity. Acquired
immune responses are activated after innate immune defenses take
effect and developed more slowly. The immune response is enhanced
by previous exposure to the infecting pathogens.
 Lymphatic System
Closely related to the immune system is our body's lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system consists of capillaries, vessels, lymph nodes and
other organs such as thymus, spleen and tonsils. They transport the
fluid called lymph from the body tissues and return it to the blood.
Lymph nodes are located at various places along lymphatic vessels.
Each lymph node contains many white blood cells that help defend
the body against cancerous cells or disease-causing organism. Lymph
nodes also return water, proteins, and other nutrients to the blood.
Tonsils
Tonsils are the two lymph nodes located on each side of the back of your
throat. They function as a defense mechanism. They help prevent your body
from infection. When the tonsils become infected, the condition is called
tonsillitis. Tonsillitis can occur at any age and is a common childhood
infection.

Thymus Gland
Thymus is a soft organ located behind the breastbone and between
the lungs. In relation to the organs in the human body, the thymus
is a two-lobed structure that lies almost on top of the heart and
traces up along the trachea.
Lymph nodes
(erroneously called lymph glands) are a part of the lymphatic system, a
component of the body's immune system. Swollen lymph nodes may signal an
infection

Spleen
an abdominal organ involved in the production and removal of blood cells in
most vertebrates and forming part of the immune system

Bone Marrow
a soft fatty substance in the cavities of bones, in which blood cells are
produced
HORMONES:CHEMICAL
SIGNALS
METAMORPHOSIS
 ONE OF THE MANY BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
CONTROLLED BY HORMONES
*In animals, a hormones is a molecule secreted
into the extracellular fluid, circulates in the blood,
and communicates messages throughout the
body. In the case of caterpillar, communication by
hormones regulates the timing of metamorphosis
and ensures that different parts of the insect’s
adult body develop in unison.
*Chemical signaling using hormones is the function of
the endocrine system, one of the two basic systems for
communication and regulation throughout the body.

*Hormones secreted by endocrine cells regulate

reproduction, development, metabolism, growth and
behavior.
*Nervous System
-other major system, a network of
specialized cells called neurons that
transmit signals along pathways. These
signals, in turn, regulate other cells
including neurons, muscle cells, and
endocrine cells.
*Hormones serve a wide range of functions in the body. It
maintains homeostasis, mediate responses to environmental
stimuli and regulate growth, development and reproduction.

Example: Hormones coordinate the body’s responses to stress,

dehydration, or low blood glucose. They also control the appearance of
characteristics that distinguish a young animal from an adult.
• The hormones are released on the bloodstream and carried to
other parts in the body. Endocrine glands often affect many
other organs at one time.

• Example:
• Your adrenal glands prepare your organs to deal with stress.
They make the hormone epinephrine or adrenaline.

• Epinephrine —speeds up your heartbeat and breathing rate to

prepare your body either to run from danger or to fight for
survival. This hormonal effect is often reffered tos as the "fight"
or "flight" response.
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Nervous System
Enables the body to respond quickly to changes in the
environment by gathering information, transmitting, and
processing information to determines the best response, and
sending information to muscles,glands,and organ so they can
respond correctly

Metabolism is governed by both the hormones and the nervous

system. They work together like a team, complementing every
single cellular action in the body.

The brain and the spinal cord are the nervous system's control
center.
Neurons
which are nerve cells that transfer information within the body. They
transmit sensory information, control heart rate, coordinate hand and
eye movements, record memories, and more.
Three type of neurons: Sensory neurons, motor neurons and
interneurons.
GANGLIA
In more complex animals, this higher-order processing is carried out
largely in groups of neurons organize into a brain or into simpler
clusters called ganglia.
Brain
receiving, analyzing, and storing information about conditions in both
inside and outside of the body.
 Skeletal system: The brain is protected by
the skull and the spinal cord is protected
by the vertebrae.

Excretory system: urine formation and Circulatory system: Heart rate and blood
other excretion is regulated by the brain pressure are regulated by the brain.
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Respiratory system: Rate of exchange of Muscular system: Movement of muscles
gases is monitored by the brain. is controlled by the brain

Digestive system: Digestion of food and

absorption of nutrients are controlled by Excretory system: Urine formation and
the brain. other excretion is regulated by the brain.
MOTION
Vertebrate skeletal muscle
 is responsible for the animal's movement.
 Most skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long fibers running parallel to the length
of the muscle
Skeletal muscles are also called striated muscles because the regular arrangement of
the filaments creates a pattern of light and dark bands.

 There are 600 muscle in our body including :

 Muscle of the heart - contract to pump blood throughout your body.
 Chest muscles - work to help air move in and out of the lungs.
 Skeletal muscles (striated muscle) are made of long thin fibers held
together by connective tissues The contraction of each muscle cell
generates a certain amount of force that pulls on the bone. Signals from
the nervous system make a muscle generate more force by causing
more muscle cells to contract.