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LABOURATORY
Arithmetic
Input and
logic
Memory
Output Control
I/O Processor
Information Handled by a Computer
• Instructions/machine instructions
Commands/statements to transfer information
between I/O devices, Memory
Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be
performed
Source program
• Data
Used as operands by the instructions
• Encoded in binary code – 0 and 1
Memory Unit
Store programs and data
Two classes of storage
• Primary storage
Large number of semiconductor storage cells
Programs must be stored in memory while they are
being executed
Processed in words
RAM – Random Access Memory
Memory hierarchy – Registers, cache, main memory,
Secondary Storages
• Secondary storage – larger and cheaper
• Magnetic or Optical storages
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Most computer operations are executed in ALU of
the processor.
The CPU
000-209 Intro to CS. 5/Mother 18 continued
The CPU Instruction Cycle
• The CPU executes a series of instructions by
looping through an instruction cycle.
•Figure below shows address, data and control bus and their
connection with peripheral and microprocessor
PERFORMANCE
Sound/network
cards
Wires and
ribbon cables
Random-access
Read-write memory Electrically, byte-level Electrically Volatile
memory (RAM)
Read-only
Masks
memory (ROM)
Read-only memory Not possible
Programmable
ROM (PROM)
Erasable PROM
UV light, chip-level
(EPROM) Nonvolatile
Electrically
Platter
Track
HDD Organization
• Typical configurations seen in disks today
– Platter diameters: 3.7”, 3.3”, 2.6”
– RPMs: 5400, 7200, 10000, 15000
• 0.5-1% variation in the RPM during operation
– Number of platters: 1-5
– Mobile disks can be as small as 0.75”
• Power proportional to: (# Platters)*(RPM)2.8(Diameter)4.6
– Tradeoff in the drive-design
• Read/write head
– Reading – Faraday’s Law
– Writing – Magnetic Induction
• Data-channel
– Encoding/decoding of data to/from magnetic phase changes
Disk Medium Materials
• Aluminum with a deposit of magnetic material
• Some disks also use glass platters
– Eg. Newer IBM/Hitachi products
– Better surface uniformity and stiffness but harder to
deposit magnetic material
• Anti-Ferromagnetically Coupled media
– Uses two magnetic layers of opposite polarity to reinforce
the orientation.
– Can provide higher densities but at higher manufacturing
complexity
A Magnetic ‘Bit’
• Bit-cell composed of
magnetic grains
– 50-100 grains/bit
• ‘0’
– Region of grains of
uniform magnetic
polarity
• ‘1’
– Boundary between
regions of opposite
magnetization
Source: http://www.hitachigst.com/hdd/research/storage/pm/index.html
Storage Density
• Determines both BPI
capacity and
performance
• Density Metrics TPI
For Writing
New Recording Technologies
• Longitudinal Recording now expected to
extend above 100 Gb/sq-in.
• Beyond that:
– Heat-assisted recording (HAMR)
Tracks and Sectors
• Bits are grouped into sectors
• Typical sector-size = 512 B of data
• Sector also has overhead information
– Error Correcting Codes (ECC)
– Servo fields to properly position the head
Optical Media
• CD – Compact Disk
• DVD
• Digital Versatile Disk
• Digital Video Disk
• Both are organized as a single spiral track
• CD – 6 kilometers
• DVD – 12.5 kilometers
CD Areas
Manufacturer Code
Batch Number
Spindle Hole
Clamping Ring
Stacking Ring
Data Area
Sizes
• CDs
• 5.25 “ – 120 mm
• 3.15” – 80 mm
• Business Card
• DVDs
• 5.25” - 120 mm
• Could be different
• None so far
CD Construction
CD-R Dyes
CD & DVD Types
• CD
• CD-Rom
• CD-R
• CD-RW
• DVD
• DVD-Rom
• DVD-R
• DVD+R
Optical Storage
• CDs
• CD – R - 700 Mbytes
• CD –RW – 570 Mbytes
• DVDs
• Single layer – 4.3 Gbytes
• Two layer – 8.6 Gbytes
• Two sided - ?
CD Organization
• Lead in
• Container for the TOC for a CD session
• 1st has 7,500 sectors (14.65 Mbytes) for lead in
• Subsequent sessions 4,500 sectors (9 Mbytes) for lead
in
• Multi-session has pointer to next writable location
• Next pointer is either 0 or 24 binary 1s to finalize the
disc
CD Organization
• Lead out
• Indicates end of session
• Audio discs stop playing
• 1st session lead out is 6,750 sectors ( 13.5 Mbytes)
• 2nd and on 2,250 sectors (4 Mbytes
CD Organization
• Sector
• 2,048 bytes for data discs
• 2,352 bytes for audio discs
• Track
• A single (logical) collection of data on the disc
• Up to 99 tracks on a CD
• Error Detection - Error Correction Codes
• Uses Reed – Solomon EDC-ECC
DVD Organization
• Border Zone / RZone
• Contains the real content of the disc
• Similar to a CD track
• Manufactured DVDs have only 1 border zone
• Recordable DVDs can have multiple border zones
• DVD does not have specific TOC
• A border zone may have the information so that the
app can make a TOC
DVD Frame
Bytes 4 2 6 2048 4
| ID | ID ECC | copyright Management info | User data | EDC |
CD DVD
Interfaces
• ATAPI or SATA
• SCSI
• USB
• 1394
Logical Structure
• Track-at-once
• CD – data discs
• Disc-at-once
• Audio discs
• DVDs
• Packet writing
• Used with drag & Drop writing software
– Dangerous for forensic workstations
• Non-video DVDs
What is Flash Memory?
15-101
Networking
• The generic term node or host refers to any
device on a network
• Data transfer rate The speed with which data
is moved from one place on a network to
another
• Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer
networks
15-102
Networking
• Computer networks have opened up an entire
frontier in the world of computing called the
client/server model
15-104
Types of Networks
• Local-area network (LAN) A network that
connects a relatively small number of
machines in a relatively close geographical
area
15-105
Types of Networks
• Various configurations, called topologies, have been
used to administer LANs
– Ring topology A configuration that connects all nodes in a
closed loop on which messages travel in one direction
– Star topology A configuration that centers around one
node to which all others are connected and through which
all messages are sent
– Bus topology All nodes are connected to a single
communication line that carries messages in both
directions
15-106
Types of Networks
15-108
Types of Networks
15-109
So, who owns the Internet?
Well, nobody does. No single person or
company owns the Internet or even controls it
entirely. As a wide-area network, it is made up
of many smaller networks. These smaller
networks are often owned and managed by a
person or organization. The Internet, then, is
really defined by how connections can be
made between these networks.
15-110
Types of Networks
15-112
Internet Connections
• There are various technologies available that you can use to
connect a home computer to the Internet
– A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio
signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then a modem at the
destination converts it back again into data
– A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone lines to
transfer digital data to and from the phone company’s central
office
– A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV signals come
in on to transfer the data back and forth
15-113
Internet Connections
• Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds
are faster than 128 bits per second
– DSL connections and cable modems are broadband
connections
– The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet
to your home computer) may not be the same as uploads
(sending data from your home computer to the Internet)
15-114
RJ45 LC BNC
In mid 1980s, Tim Rock, Richard Bennett, Pat Thaler, and others develop
StarLAN, the basis for 1BASE5 ethernet
For fiber optic cable, different wavelengths of light are passed along.
Application This layer supports application and end-user processes.
(Layer 7)
Presentation
This layer translates the data so it can be sent along the network. It is
(Layer 6)
sometimes called the syntax layer.
Session This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
(Layer 5) applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates connections
at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.
Transport This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts,
(Layer 4) and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures
complete data transfer.
This layer provides routing technologies, creating paths, known as virtual circuits,
Network for transmitting data from computer to computer. Routing and forwarding are
(Layer 3) functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
congestion control and packet sequencing.
At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. The data link layer
Data Link is divided into two sub layers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC layer controls how a computer on the
(Layer 2)
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer
controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
Physical This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the
network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending
(Layer 1)
and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast
Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.
Token Ring Process
• Phase 0 (Lobe Check) —The station checks to ensure it can receive these frames without
error.
• Phase 1 (Physical Insertion) — A station then sends a 5 volt signal to the MSAU to open the
relay.
• Phase 2 (Address Verification) — A station then transmits MAC frames with its own MAC
address in the destination address field of a token ring frame. When the frame returns and if
the address copied , the station must participate in the periodic (every 7 seconds) ring poll
process. This is where stations identify themselves on the network as part of the MAC
management functions.
• Phase 3 (Participation in ring poll) — A station learns the address of its Nearest Active
Upstream Neighbor (NAUN) and makes its address known to its nearest downstream
neighbor, leading to the creation of the ring map. Station waits until it receives an AMP or
SMP frame with the ARI and FCI bits set to 0. When it does, the station flips both bits (ARI
and FCI) to 1, if enough resources are available, and queues an SMP frame for transmission. If
no such frames are received within 18 seconds, then the station reports a failure to open and
de-inserts from the ring. If the station successfully participates in a ring poll, it proceeds into
the final phase of insertion, request initialization.
• Phase 4 (Request Initialization) — Finally a station sends out a special request to a parameter
server to obtain configuration information. This frame is sent to a special functional address,
typically a token ring bridge, which may hold timer and ring number information with which
to tell the new station abort
How the procedure works.
Simpler than a token ring, the procedure for coaxial is as following: