Application of metals in

prosthodontics with reference to

solidification range of alloy
 Introduction
 Metals and alloys play a prominent and
important role in dentistry. These materials are
used in almost all aspects of dental practice,
including the dental laboratory, direct and
indirect dental restorations, and instruments
used to prepare and manipulate teeth.
 METAL
 Metals Hand book (1992) defines the metal as an
opaque lustrous chemical substance that is good
conductor of heat and electricity and when polished
good reflector of light. A clean metallic surface
exhibits a luster that is difficult to duplicate in other
types of solid material
 GPT 8 (2005) defines “METAL” as any strong
relatively ductile substance that provides
electropositive ions to a corrosive environment and
that can be polished to a high lustre. Characterized by
metallic atomic bonding
 Occurrence and extraction

 Metals can occur either as pure elements or in compound with

other elements in ores.Examples,Gold occur as the pure
metal,Silver occurs as the pure metal or silver sulphide or silver
chloride.
 An ore contains the compound of metal, together with unwanted
earthy material.Ores often go through the process such as
grinding,grading according to size and quality and concentartion
before conversion to a metal. The various methods of producing
of metals are
 Thermal methods
 Hydro-metallurgical methods,
 Thermo-electrolytic
 ALLOY
 The use of pure metals is quite limited in dentistry. To
optimize properties, most metals commonly used in
engineering and dental applications are mixtures of two or
more metallic elements or in some cases one or more metals
and/or nonmetals. They are generally prepared by fusion of the
elements above their melting points. A solid material formed
by combining a metal with one or more other metals or
nonmetals is called an alloy.

 An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metalloids

that are mutually soluble in the molten state; distinguishable as
binary, ternary,quaternary, etc., depending on the number of
metals with the mixture. Alloying elements are added to alter
the hardness, strength, and toughness of a metallic element,
thus obtaining properties found in pure metal (GPT-7).
 HISTORY OF METALS IN DENTISTRY

Dentistry as a specialty is believed to have begun about 3000

BC. Gold bands and wires were used by the Phoenicians after 2500
BC.

Modern dentistry began in 1728 when Fauchard “father of dentistry

“published different treatment modalities describing many types of
dental restorations, including a method for the construction of
artificial dentures made from ivory. Gold shell crowns were
described by Mouton in 1746 but they were not patented until in
1873 by Beers. In 1885 Logan patented porcelain fused to platinum
post replacing the unsatisfactory wooden post previously used to
build up intra-radicular areas of teeth. In 1907 a detached post crown
was introduced which was more easily adjustable
 Year Event

 1907 Introduction of Lost-Wax Technique.

 1933 Replacement of Co-Cr for Gold in Removable
Partial Dentures.
 1950 Development of Resin Veneers for Gold Alloys
 1959 Introduction of the Porcelain Fused-to metal
Technique.
 1968 Palladium-Based Alloys as Alternatives to gold
Alloy.
 1971 Nickel-Based Alloys as Alternatives to Gold Alloys.
 1980 Introduction of All-Ceramic Technologies.
 1999 Gold Alloys as Alternatives to Palladium-Base
Alloys.
 Classification Of Metals and Alloys
 According to periodic chart of elements out of 103
elements approximately 81 are metals
arsenic,silicon,boron and others are metalloids
(located between metals and non metals on the
periodic table)all the remaining elements are non
metals. It is of scientific interest that the metallic
elements can be grouped according to density,
ductility, melting point and nobility.Several metals of
importance for dental alloys are transition elements,
in which the outermost electron subshells are
occupied before the interior subshells are completely
filled.
 Metals can be broadly classified according to
composition as

NOBLE METALS
• The term noble identifies elements in terms of their

chemical stability i.e., they resist oxidation and are

impervious to acids.
• Gold, Platinum, Palladium, Rhodium, Ruthenium,

Iridium, Osmium, and Silver are the eight noble

metals.
• In the oral cavity Silver is more reactive and
therefore is not considered as a noble metal.
PRECIOUS METALS
 The term “precious” merely indicates whether

a metal has intrinsic value, the noble metals

(all eight) are also precious metals
 All noble metals are precious but all precious

metals are not noble.

 Silver is usually the major ingredient in most

alloys considered as precious.

BASE METALS
 These are Ignoble elements. These remain

invaluable components of dental casting alloys

because of their influence on physical
properties, control of the amount and type of
oxidation, or for their strengthening effects.
e.g., Chromium, Cobalt, Nickel, Iron,
titanium,berillieum,Copper etc.
 Another Classification Of Metals
 Light Metal – e.g., Al.
 Heavy Metal – e.g., Fe.
 High Melting Metal – e.g., Co, Cr.
 Low Melting Metal – e.g., Sn.
 High Ductile and Malleable metal – e.g., Au.
 1. ALLOY TYPES BY FUNCTIONS:
In 1927, the Bureau of Standard established gold casting alloys, type I
to type IV according to dental function with hardness increasing from
type I to type IV.
 Type I (Soft):
It is used for fabrication of small inlays, class III and class V
restorations which are not subjected to great stress . These alloys
are easily burnishable.
 Type -II (Medium):
These are used for fabrication of inlays subjected to moderate
stress, thick 3/4 crowns, abutments, pontics, full crowns and soft
saddles.
 Type -III (Hard):

It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, thin 3/4

crowns, thin cast backing abutments, pontics, full crowns, denture
bases and short span FPDs .
 Type-IV (Extra hard):

It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, denture

bases, bars and clasps, partial denture frameworks and long span
FPDs. These alloys can be age hardened by heat treatment.
 Later, in 1960, metal ceramic alloys were introduced
and removable partial denture alloys were added in
this classification.
 Metal ceramic alloys (hard and extra hard):

It is suitable for veneering with dental porcelain,

copings, thin walled crowns, short span FPDs and
long span FPDs. These alloy vary greatly in
composition and may be gold, palladium, nickel or
cobalt based.
 Removable partial denture alloys :

It is used for removable partial denture frameworks.

Now a days, light weight, strong and less expensive
nickel or cobalt based have replaced type IV alloys .
 2. ALLOY TYPES BY DESCRIPTION:
A) CROWN AND BRIDGE ALLOYS
This category of alloys include both noble and base metal
alloys that have been or potentially could be used in the
fabrication of full metal or partial veneers.
 1. Noble metal alloys:

i) Gold based alloy - type III and type IV gold alloys , low
gold alloys
ii) Non-gold based alloy-Silver -palladium alloy
 2. Base metal alloys:
i)Nickel-based alloys
ii) Cobalt based alloys
 3. Other alloys:
i)Copper-zinc with Indium and nickel
ii)Silver-indium with palladium
B) METAL CERAMIC ALLOY
Noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding:
• Gold-platinum -palladium alloy
• Gold-palladium-silver alloy
• Gold-palladium alloy
• Palladium silver alloy
• High palladium alloy
Base metal alloys for porcelain bonding :
 Nickel -chromium alloy
 Cobalt-chromium alloy
J. Robert Kelly and Thomas C.Rose in 1983 discussed
the various physical properties, biocompatibility,
porcelain bonding and corrosion resistance of various
non precious alloys.

They concluded that though the manipulation of non

precious alloys is technique sensitive and exacting,
their better physical properties and clinical
performance merited consideration.

JPD 1983,VOL49,N03
c) REMOVABLE PARTIAL DENTURE ALLOY
Although type-IV noble metal alloy may be
used, majority of removable partial
framework are made from base metal alloys:
1. Cobalt-chromium alloy
2. Nickel-chromium alloy
3. Cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy
4. Silver-palladium alloy
5. Aluminum -bronze alloy
Kamal Asgar, (1970) evalvated the properties of
new alloy (vitallium, Ticonium) for partial
denture the benefits of these alloys are
 partial denture clasps could last longer,

 reduced hardness facilitates ajustments partial

dentures,
 wear on natural teeth is reduced.

JPD 1970 Vol- 23 No. 1.

 3.ALLOY TYPE BY NOBILITY
 Alloy Classification of the American Dental Association
(1984) classified according to nobility as High noble, noble,
and predominantly base metal
Classification of alloys for All-Metal restorations, metal ceramic
restorations, and frameworks for removable partial dentures.
 4.ALLOY TYPE BY MAJOR ELEMENTS:
Gold-based, palladium-based, silver-based, nickel-
based, cobalt-based and titanium-based .
 5.ALLOY TYPE BY PRINCIPAL THREE ELEMENTS:
Such as Au-Pd-Ag, Pd-Ag-Sn, Ni-Cr-Be, Co-Cr-Mo,
Ti-Al-V and Fe-Ni-Cr.(If two metals are present, a
binary alloy is formed; if three or four metals are
present, ternary and quaternary alloys, respectively,
are produced and so on.)
 6. ALLOY TYPE BY DOMINANT PHASE SYSTEM:
Single phase [isomorphous], eutectic, peritectic and
intermetallic compound.
 General characteristics and properties of metals
 A metal is an element that ionizes positively in
solution.

 Metals have certain typical and characteristic

properties that tend to identify and distinguish them
from the nonmetallic elements, such as luster, opacity,
density, thermal and electrical conductivity.

 Extreme ductility and malleability are often desirable

in metals used in dentistry and these are found to
predominate in pure metals rather than in alloys.
  Metals have high fracture toughness which is
described by the property hardness of metal or
alloys
HARDNESS
In mineralogy the hardness is described on the basis of
the material that is metal to resist scratching. In
metallurgy and in most other fields, the amounts of
the resistance of indentation is taken as the measure
of hardness for the respective material).
 Brinell hardness number ( BHN )

 Rockwell hardness number ( RHN )

 Vickers hardness test (VHN )

 Knoop hardness test ( KHN )

JPD 2002, Vol 87, No 4, Pg 351 – 363.

 Solid metals are stronger and denser than other non
metallic elements
 Some metals require alloying elements to resist

tarnish and corrosion

passivation
Certain metals readily form strong adherent oxide
film on their surface, which protects them from
corrosion. Such a metal is said to be passive.
Chromium, titanium and aluminium are examples
of such metals. Since this film is passive to
oxidative chemical attack, their formation is called
passivation.
 Microscopic Structure Of Metals
Most metals have crystalline structure in solid
state which are held together by metallic
bonds.
METALLIC BOND FORMATION
•Metal is a crystalline material that consists of
positively charged ions in an ordered, closely
packed arrangement and bonded with a cloud of
electrons. This type of bond, called a metallic
bond, is responsible for many of the properties of
metals-electrical and thermal conductivity,
metallic luster, and (usually) high strength
 Solidification Of Pure Metal
 Pure metal has a melting point-known as Fusion Temperature,
and has specific heat.
 To melt a crystalline substance (metal) some what more heat
energy is required to convert it from solid to liquid. This extra
heat is stored away within the atoms in the form of latent heat
of fusion.
 When the solid metal changes into liquid, its crystalline
pattern disappears, and the atoms are randomly distributed in
the mass of liquid and they have more energy and are
therefore move about freely. In the reverse process of
changing into solid, temperature of the melt goes gradually
(cooling); atoms make an attempt to reform the crystalline
arrangement
Mechanism of Crystallization
 Metals usually have crystalline structures in the solid
state.When a molten metal or alloy is cooled, the solidification
process is one of crystallization and is initiated at specific sites
called nuclei.

 The nuclei are formed from impurities within the molten mass
of metal. The initial nuclei are small in size and few in number
known as EMBRYO, which do not stabilize in the melt and
soon disappear

 As the temperature of the metal gradually goes down, a stable

NUCLEUS is formed.Such nucleus formations are called
DENDRITES,
 Crystals grow as dendrites, which can be described as three-
dimensional, branched network structures emanating from the central
nucleus
 Crystal growth continue until all the material has solidified and all the
dendrite crystals are in contact.
 The metal is therefore made of thousands of tiny crystals,
such a metal is called polycrystalline and each crystal in
the structure is called a GRAIN.

 The area between two grains in contact is the grain

boundary
 After crystallization, the grains, have approximately
the same dimensions in each direction, measured
from the central nucleus.

 They are not perfectly spherical or cubic however,

nor do they conform to any other geometric shape.
They are said to have an equiaxed grain structure.

 The atoms with in each grain are arranged in regular

three dimensional lattice
 A space lattice can be defined as any arrangement of
atoms in space such that every atom is situated
similarly to every other atom. It is also called a
crystal. There are 14 possible lattice types or forms,
but many of the metals used in dentistry belong to the
cubic system arrangement.
o simple cubic,
o body centered cubic,
o face centered cubic,
o Close packed hexagonal
The arrangement adopted by any one crystal depends on
specific factors such as atomic radius and charge
distributions on the atoms. Although there is a tendency
towards a perfect crystal structure, occasional defects occurs

a)imperfection in a crystal structure

b)under the influence of sufficient
force atoms may move to establish a
more perfect arrangement
 Such defects are normally referred to as dislocations and their
occurrence has an effect on the ductility of the metal
 When the material is placed under a sufficiently high stress the
dislocation is able to move through the lattice until it reaches a
grain boundary. The plane along which the dislocation moves is
called a slip plane and the stress required to initiate movement is
the elastic limit.
 Grain boundaries form a natural barrier to the
movement of dislocations.
 The concentration of grain boundaries increases
as the grain size decreases.
 Metals with finer grain structure are generally
harder and have higher values of elastic limit
than those with coarser grain structure.
 Hence it can be seen that material properties can be
controlled to some extent by controlling the grain
size.
 A fine grain structure can be achieved by rapid
cooling of the molten metal or alloy following
casting. This process, often referred to as quenching,
ensures that many nuclei of crystallization are
formed, resulting in a large number of relatively
small grains.
 Small grains have been found to improve the
elongation and tensile strength of cast gold alloys.
 Slow cooling causes relatively few nuclei to be
formed which results in a larger grain size
JPD 2002, Vol 87, No 4, Pg 351 – 363.
Grain size is determined by number of variables .
 cooling rate of the solidifying alloy.

 Presence of special grain refining elements in

the alloy composition.

 Grain size of 30 micrometer or less is desirable

in dental alloys
JPD 2002, Vol 87, No 4, Pg 351 – 363.
A)RAPID COOLING
B)SLOW COOLING
 HARDENING OF METAL
COLD WORKING
 when the stress is greater than the elastic limit and at
relatively low temperatures the cold working not only
produces a change in microstructure, with
dislocations becoming concentrated at grain
boundaries, but also a change in grain shape.
 The grains are no longer equiaxed but take up a more
fibrous structure
 the properties of material are altered, becoming
harder and stronger and the ductility and malleability
is decreased
 Cold working is sometimes referred to as work
hardening due to the effect on mechanical
properties.
 When mechanical work is carried out on a metal or
alloy at a more elevated temperature it is possible
for the object to change shape without any alteration
in grain shape or mechanical properties.
 examples of cold working in dentistry are formation
of wires, bending of wires or clasps during the
construction and alteration of appliances.
The temperature below which work hardening is
possible is termed the recrystallization temperature.

If the material is maintained above the

recrystallization temperature for sufficient time,
diffusion of atoms across grain boundaries may
occur, leading to grain growth.

It is clear that grain growth should be avoided if the

properties are not to be adversely affected.
 Annealing

It is process of heating a metal to reverse the

effects associated with cold working such as
strain hardening, low ductility and distorted
grains.

In general it has 3 stages.

1) Recovery
2) Recrystallization
3) Grain growth.
 Cold working may cause the formation of
internal stresses within a metal object. If these
stresses are gradually relieved they may cause
distortion which could lead to loss of fit of, for
example, an orthodontic appliance.

 For certain metals and alloys the internal

stresses can be wholly or partly eliminated by
using a low temperature heat treatment
referred to as stress relief annealing.
 Structure and phase diagrams for alloys

When two metals are completely miscible in

liquid state, they are capable of forming any
alloy. When such a combination is cooled, one
of the three possibilities may take place
 a) Solid solution

 b) Intermetallic compound
 c) Eutectic formation
 SOLID SOLUTIONS OR ISOMORPHOUS
STATE OR SINGLE PHASE
The two metals are said to be mutally soluble in the solid state
,and the alloys are called solid solution.
It consists of a solute and a solvent.
Solvent is that metal whose space lattice persists and solute is the
other metal.
E.g. Au – Ag
Au – Cu
Au – Pt
Au – Pd
Ag – Pd
The solid solution may take one of three forms.
It may be a random solid solution in which the
component metal atoms occupy random sites
in a common crystal lattice
Another possibility is the formation of an
ordered solid solution in which component
metal atoms occupy specific sites within a
common crystal lattice.
The third type of solid solution is the interstitial solid solution
in which, for binary alloys, the primary lattice sites are
occupied by one metal atom and the atoms of the second
component do not occupy lattice sites but lie within the
interstices of the lattice. This is normally found where the
atomic radius of one component is much smaller than that
of the other.
Conditions Favoring Solid-Solubility
 Atom size - if the atom sizes of the mixing metal are same, it
will produce solid solution type of alloy.

 Valency - metals of the same valency will produce solid-

solution alloy.

 Crystal structure- Only metals with the same type of crystal

lattice can form a series of solid solutions.

 Chemical affinity - must be less to produce solid-solution

alloy.
 PROPERTIES OF A SOLID SOLUTION
ALLOY
The solid solution possesses:
 Increased hardness

 Increased strength

 Increased proportional limit

 Decreased ductility

 Decreased resistance to corrosion due to coring

 Melting range rather than a point

 EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAM FOR ALLOYS

 Equilibrium phase diagram are of central importance

to the metallurgy of alloys, since the phases that are
present in an alloy system for different compositions
and temperatures. Eg Single phase [isomorphous],
eutectic, peritectic and intermetallic.
 Phase diagrams are useful for understanding the
structure of dental alloys and can provide
microstructural predictions when some cast dental
alloys are subjected to heat treatment.
 This concept equilibrium phase diagram was
introduced by using the table salt-water system
Liquidus temperaturea
Solidus temperature
Liquidus
Solidus
 Liquidus temperature – Temperature at which
an alloy begins to freeze on cooling or at
which the metal is completely molten on
heating.
 Solidus temperature – Temperature at which
an alloy becomes solid on cooling or at which
the metal begins to melt on heating.
 PHASE DIAGRAM OF A SOLID SOLUTION
ALLOY
This equilibrium phase diagram is for palladium
65% and silver 35%. When an alloy composition is
undergoing equilibrium solidification, the
percentage of the liquid and solid phases present at
a given temp. can be calculated by the lever rule.
 Dashed line PO perpendicular to composition line is drawn.
 A point on line PO corresponds temp. 1500°C, the alloy is
clearly in liquid state
 Point R - Temp is approx. 1400°C and first solid is formed
(crystal), but the composition is different from 65% Palladium
and 35% Silver. To determine the composition of first solid
extend the tie line to point M. This when projected to the base
line gives the composition of first solid which is 77% of
Palladium.
 Point S - The alloy is midway through its freezing range, and the
composition of solid and liquid may be determined by drawing
tie line Y-W. These points when projected to the base line gives
liquid composition of 57% Palladium at point Y and solid
composition of 71%Palladium at point W.
 Point T – As the temp. reaches point T (solid phase) the
concentration is 65% Palladium.
CORING
 In the coring process the last liquid to solidify is metal

with lower solidus temperature and solidifies between

the dendrites.
 Thus under rapid freezing conditions, the alloy has a

cored structure.
 The core consists of the dendrites composed of

compositions with higher solidus temperature, and the

matrix is the portion of the micro-structure between the
dendrites that contains compositions with lower solidus
temperatures.
 Since coring may markedly reduce the corrosion

resistance of some alloys, a heat treatment is some

times used to eliminate the cored structure. Such a heat
treatment is termed a homogenization heat treatment
For homogenization heat treatment, the cast alloy is held
at a temperature near its solidus to achieve the maximum
amount of diffusion without melting. (This process
required 6 hr. for the alloy). Little or no grain growth
occurs when a casting receives this type of heat treatment
eg. Annealing done mainly for wrought alloys . The
ductility of an alloy usually increases after
homogenization heat treatment .
 EUTECTIC ALLOYS
 Many binary alloy systems do not exhibit complete
solubility in both the liquid and the solid states.
 The eutectic system is an example of an alloy for
which the component metals have limited solid
solubility.
 Two metals, A and B, which are completely insoluble
in each other in the solid state, provide the simplest
illustration of a eutectic alloy.
 The term eutectic means lowest melting point.
 SILVER-COPPER SYSTEM:
 The phase diagram for this system is presented in where 3 phases are
found:
 A liquid phase (L)
 A silver-rich substitutional solid solution phase () containing a small
amount of copper atoms.
 A copper-rich substitutional solid solution phase () containing a small
amount of silver atoms. The  and  phases are sometimes referred to as
terminal solid solutions because of their locations at the left and right sides
of the phase diagram.
 Liquidus and solidus meet at point E. This
composition (72% silver and 28% copper) is known
as the eutectic composition or simply the eutectic.
The following characteristics of this special
composition should be noted.
 The temperature at which the eutectic composition
melts (779°C or 1435°F) is lower than the fusion
temperature of silver or copper (eutectic literally
means “lowest melting”).
 There is no solidification range for composition E.
 The eutectic reaction is sometimes written
schematically as follows.
 Liquid  solid solution +  solid solution
PROPERTIES OF EUTECTIC ALLOYS

 Since there is a heterogeneous composition,

they are susceptible to electrolytic corrosion.

 They are brittle, because the present of

insoluble phases inhibits slip.

 They have a low melting point and therefore

are important as solders.
 PERITECTIC ALLOYS

• Peritectic is a phase where there is limited

solid solubility.
• They are not of much use in dentistry except
for silver tin system.
• This type of reaction occurs when there is a
big differences in the melting points of the
components.
Liquid +  solid solution  solid solution
 Inter metallic Compounds
 Inter metallic compounds are those when the metals
are soluble in the liquid state but unite and form a
chemical compound on solidifying.
E.g.
 Ag3 – Sn,
 Sn7 – Hg8

 They are called inter metallic compounds because the

alloy is formed by a chemical reaction between a
metal and metal.
 Application of metals and alloys in prosthodontics

NOBLE METALS
 The noble metals have been the basis of inlays,

crowns and bridges because of their resistance to

corrosion in the oral cavity.
 Gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,

iridium, osmium, and silver are the eight noble metals

 Of the eight noble metals, four are of major

importance in dental casting alloys, i.e., gold,

platinum, palladium and silver. All four have a face-
centered cubic crystal structure and all are white
coloured except for gold.
Solidification temperature of metals in detistry
 GOLD
 Pure gold is a soft and ductile metal with a yellow
“Gold” hue.
 It has a density of 19.3 gms/cm3 , melting point of
1063oC, boiling point of 2970 oC and CTE of
14.2×10-6/°C.
 Gold has a good luster and takes up a high polish. It
has good chemical stability and provides a high level
of corrosion and tarnish resistance , increases an
alloy's melting range slightly, improves workability,
burnish ability, and raises the density .However, gold
imparts a very pleasing yellow color to an alloy (if
present in sufficient quantity)
 Uses
 Majority of alloys for prosthodontic applications
were gold based in the pre 1975 era
 Gold alloys are used for inlays ,onlays,crowns
,bridges and partial denture framework
 Physical and mechanical properties of cast pure gold, gold
alloys, and condensed gold foil

Material Density Hardness (VHN/BHN) Tensile Elongation

(g/cm3) (kg/mm2) Strength (%)
(MPa)

Cast 24k gold 19.3 28(VHN) 105 30

Cast 22k gold -- 60(VHN) 240 22

Coin gold -- 85 (BHN) 395 30

Typical Au-based 15.6 135/195(VHN) 425/525 30/12

casting alloy
(70 wt% Au)*

Condensed gold 19.1 60 (VHN) 250 12.8

foil

JPD 2002, Vol 87, No 4, Pg 351 – 363.

 SILVER
 It is sometimes described as the “Whitest” of all
metals. It whitens the alloy, thus helping to counteract
the reddish colour of copper. To a slight extent it
increases strength and hardness. It has lowest density
10.4gms/cm3 and melting point of 961oC, boiling
point of 2216 oC among the four precious metals
used in dental casting alloys. Its CTE is 19.710-6/oC
, which is comparatively high
 Advantages
lowers the melting range, improves fluidity, and helps
to control the coefficient of thermal expansion in
gold- and palladium-based alloys
 disadvantages
 Silver-containing porcelain alloys have been known to induce
discoloration (yellow, brown, or green) with some porcelains.
Silver possesses a high affinity for oxygen absorption, which
can lead to casting porosity
 However, small amounts of zinc or indium added to gold
and silver-based alloys help to control silver's absorption of
oxygen.
 Silver will also corrode and tarnish in the presence of
sulfur. Although silver is a precious element, it is not
universally regarded as noble in the oral cavity
 PLATINUM
. Platinum increases the strength, melting range,
and hardness of gold-based alloys while
improving their corrosion, tarnish, and sag
resistance.It whitens an alloy and increases the
density of non gold-based metals because of
its high density.
 PALLADIUM
 It is less expensive than platinum, thus reducing cost
of alloy. increase the strength, hardness (with
copper), corrosion and tarnish resistance of gold-
based alloys.
 will elevate an alloy's melting range and improve its
sag resistance.
 has a very strong whitening effect
 possesses a high affinity for hydrogen, oxygen, and
carbon.
 lowers the density of the gold-based alloys slightly
but has little similar effect on silver-based metals.
 IRIDIUM, RUTHENIUM
 They help to decrease the grain size. They are added in very
small quantities .
 IRIDIUM has a high melting point of 2410°C .
 RUTHENIUM has a melting point of 2310°C.these elements
do not melt during the casting of the alloy and serve as
nucleating centers for the melt as it cools,resulting in a fine
grained alloy.
 BASE METALS
These are Ignoble elements. These remain
invaluable components of dental casting alloys
because of their influence on physical
properties, control of the amount and type of
oxidation, or for their strengthening effects.
e.g., Chromium, Cobalt, Nickel, Iron, Copper
etc.
 COPPER:
 It reduces the resistance to tarnish and corrosion of Gold alloy if
present more than 16%.
 Copper serves as a hardening and strengthening agent, can lower the
melting range of an alloy, and interacts with platinum, palladium,
silver, and gold to provide a heat-treating capability in gold-, silver-,
and palladium-based alloys.
 Copper helps to form an oxide for porcelain bonding, lowers the
density slightly, and can enhance passivity in the high palladium-
copper alloys.
 ZINC:
 lowers the melting range of an alloy
 acts as a deoxidizer
 Zinc improves the castability of an alloy and contributes to
hardness when combined with palladium.
 Scavenger for Oxygen
 Without Zinc, the Silver in the alloy causes absorption of
Oxygen during melting. Later during solidification, the
Oxygen is rejected producing gas porosities in the casting.
MOLYBDENUM
 They are effective hardener

 Molybdenum refines grain structure.

Molybdenum improves corrosion resistance

 influences oxide production

 is helpful in adjusting the coefficient of

thermal expansion of nickel-based alloys.

 CHROMIUM
Its passivating effect ensures corrosion resistance. The
chromium content is directly proportional to tarnish
and corrosion resistance.
It reduces the melting point. Along with other elements,
it also acts in solid solution hardening.
Thirty percent chromium is considered the upper limit
for attaining maximum mechanical properties.
 Beryllium
 beryllium lowers the melting range of nickel-based
alloys, improves castability, improves polishability, is
a hardener, and helps to control oxide formation.
 Beryllium may decrease the ability of nickel and
cobalt to passivate.

JPD 1983 ,Vol49 ,No3

 IRON
 They help to harden the metal ceramic gold -
palladium alloys, iron being the most effective.
 IRON has melting point of 1527°C , boiling
point of 3000 °C , density of 7.87 gm/cm3 .
 GALLIUM
It is added to compensate for the decreased
coefficient of thermal expansion that results
when the alloy is made silver free. The
elimination of silver reduces the tendency for
green stain at the margin of the metal-
porcelain interface.
 COBALT
 Imparts hardness, strength and rigidity to the alloy . It
has a high melting point of 1495°C , boiling point of
2900 °C , density of 8.85 gm/cm3 Cobalt is an
alternative to the nickel-based alloys, but the cobalt-
based metals are more difficult to process.
 Cobalt is included in some high-palladium alloys to
increase the alloy's coefficient of thermal expansion
and to act as a strengthener
 NICKEL
It decreases strength, hardness, modulus of elasticity and fusion
temperature. It increased ductility.
Nickel has been selected as a base for porcelain alloys because its
coefficient of thermal expansion approximates that of gold and
it provides resistance to corrosion.
Bio-incompatibility due to nickel, which is the most common
metal to cause Contact Dermatitis.
Unfortunately, nickel is a sensitizer and a known carcinogen.
Estimates of nickel sensitivity among women in the United States
range from 9% to 31.9% and from 0.8% to 20.7% among men .

JPD 1991 VOl.66 Pg 213-221

 MANGANESE
 Primarily oxide scavengers to prevent
oxidation of other elements during melting and
a hardening agent in nickel- and cobalt-based
alloys.
 CARBON:
 Carbon content is most critical. Small amounts may have
a pronounced effect on strength, hardness and ductility.
Carbon forms carbides with any of the metallic
constituents which is an important factor in strengthening
the alloy. However when in excess it increases brittleness.
Thus, control of carbon content in the alloy is important.
 BORON
 It is a deoxidizer and hardener, but reduces ductility.
 For nickel-based alloys, it is a hardening agent and an
element that reduces the surface tension of the molten
alloy to improve castability.
 The nickel-chromium beryllium-free alloys that
contain boron will pool on melting, as opposed to the
Ni-Cr-Be alloys that do not pool.
 Boron reduces ductility and increases hardness.
 TITANIUM
 Titanium is called “material of choice” in dentistry.
This is attributed to the oxide formation property
which forms basis for corrosion resistance and
biocompatibility of this material. The term 'titanium'
is used for all types of pure and alloyed titanium.
 Like aluminum and beryllium, titanium is added to
lower the melting range and improve castability.
 Tita­nium also acts as a hardener and influences oxide
formation at high temperatures.
 Dental casting alloys
Uses
 1) Fabrication of inlay, onlays

 2) Fabrication of crowns, conventional all

metal bridges, metal-ceramic bridges, resin

bonded bridges.
 3) Endodontic posts.

 4) Removable partial denture frameworks.

Solidification range of some of alloys commonly used
Solidus temperature Liquidus temperature
Alloy type ADA classification
(°C) (°C)

Au-Pt High Noble 1060 1140

Au-Pd High noble 1160 1260

Au-Cu-Ag-Pd High noble 905 960

Au-Cu-Ag-Pd Noble 880 1270

Pd-Cu Noble 1145 1230

Pd-Ag Noble 1185 1045

Ag-Pd Noble 990 1270

Ni-Cr-Be (Cr<20 wt %) base metal 1160 1270

Ni-Cr (Cr<20 wt %) base metal 1330 1390

Ni-Cr (Cr>20 wt %) base metal 1250 1310

Co-Cr base metal 1215 1300

 DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS

 Biocompatibility
 Ease of melting
 Ease of casting
 Ease of brazing (soldering)
 Ease of polishing
 Little solidification shrinkage
 Minimal reactivity with the mold material
 Good wear resistance
 High strength
 Excellent corrosion resistance
 Porcelain Bonding
Typical compositions of Casting Alloys for Full-Metal, Resin-Veneered and Metal- Ceramic
Prostheses
Elemental composition (wt%)
Alloy type Classification
Au Pd Ag Cu Ga, In, and Zn

High Noble
I 83 0.5 10 6 Balance
(Au-based)
High Noble
II 77 1 14 7 Balance
(Au-based)
High Noble
III 75 3.5 11 9 Balance
(Au-based)
High Noble
III 46 6 39 8 Balance
(Ag-based)
Noble
III - 25 70 - Balance
(Ag-based)
High Noble
IV 56 4 25 14 Balance
(Au-based)
Noble
IV 15 25 45 14 Balance
(Ag-based)
Metal High Noble
52 38 - - Balance
Ceramic (Au-based)
Metal Noble
- 60 30 - Balance
Ceramic (Ag-based)
Metal High Noble
88 7 1 - Balance
Ceramic (Au-based)
Metal Noble
0-6 74-88 0-10 0-15 Balance
Ceramic (Ag-based)
 Gold casting alloys

ADA specification No. 5 classify dental gold casting alloys as:

 Type1 :low strength – for castings subject to very slight
stress,eg;inlays
 Type2 :medium strength –for casting subject to moderate
stress ,eg ;inlays and onlays
 Type3: high strength –for casting subject to high stress,
eg;onlays, thin cast backings,pontics,full crown
 Type 4: extra high strength –for casting subject to very high
stress and thin in cross
section,eg;saddles,bars,clasps,crowns,bridges,and partial
denture frame work.
JPD 2002, Vol 87, No 4, Pg 351 – 363.
HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS:
 Heat treatment of alloys is done in order to

alter its mechanical properties.

 Gold alloys can be heat treated if it contains

sufficient amount of copper. Only type III and

type IV gold alloys can be heat-treat
 There are two types of heat treatment.

 Softening Heat Treatment (Solution heat

treatment)
 Hardening Heat Treatment (Age hardening)

 JPD 1964, Vol 14, No 5, Pg 955 – 960

1. SOFTENING HEAT TEMPERATURE
Softening heat treatment increased
ductility, but reduces tensile strength,
proportional limit, and hardness.
Indications:
It is indicated for appliances that are to be
grounded, shaped, or otherwise cold worked in
or outside the mouth.
Method:
The casting is placed in an electric furnace
for 10 minutes at a temperature of 700oand
then it is quenched in water. During this
period, all intermediate phases are presumably
changed to a disordered solid solution, and the
rapid quenching prevents ordering from
occurring during cooling.
 2. HARDENING HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening heat treatment increases strength, proportional limit, and hardness,
but decreases ductility. It is the copper present in gold alloys, which helps
in the age hardening process.
Indications:
It is indicated for metallic partial dentures, saddles, bridges and other
similar structures. It is not employed for smaller structures such as inlays.
Method:
 It is done by “soaking” or ageing the casting at a specific temperature for a
definite time, usually 15 to 30 minutes. It is then water quenched. The
aging temperature depends on the alloy composition but is generally
between 200°C and 450°C. During this period, the intermediate phases are
changed to an ordered solid solution. The proper time and temperature for
age hardening an alloy are specified by the manufacturer.
Ideally, before age hardening an alloy, it should first be subjected to a
softening heat treatment to relieve all strain hardening and to start the age
hardening treatment when the alloy is in a disordered solid solution. This
allows better control of the hardening process.
LOW GOLD CONTENT ALLOYS :
SILVER - PALLADIUM ALLOYS
• Contains predominantly silver
• Palladium upto 25%
• May or may not contain gold and copper
• Traces of zinc and indium
 High casting temp
 Low density
 Good tarnish and corrosion resistance
 Properties similar to type III and type IV gold.
ALUMINIUM BRONZE ALLOYS
 Cu 81-88 wt%
 Al 7-11 wt%
 Ni 2-4 wt%
 Fe 1-4 wt%
 In noble metal alloys
 Increasing the gold levels of concentration
with in an alloy decreased the degree of tarnish
 Increasing the palladium levels of
concentration in an alloy decreased degree of
tarnish
 Increased concentration of silver to copper will
increase degree of tarnish.
JPD1982,VOL48,NO3
 METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS
The main function of metal-ceramic alloys is to reinforce
porcelain, thus increasing its resistance to fracture.
Requirements:
 Fusion temperature should be 100°C greater than the fusion
temperature of porcelain.
 Contact angle between the ceramic and metal should be less
than 60°
 Should form oxides on the surface for bonding to porcelain.
-Tin, Indium and Iron are added.
 should have compatible co-efficient of thermal expansion(0.5 x
10-6/°C).
 Adequate stiffness and strength

 High sag resistance

 Lab workability and Casting Accuracy – in order to provide

clinically acceptable castings
The alloys used for metal-ceramic purposes are grouped under
two categories:
i) Noble metal alloys
ii) Base metal alloys.
In case of noble metal alloys for porcelain bonding ,
addition of 1% base metals (iron, indium, tin etc.) increases
porcelain-metal bond strength, which is due to formation of an
oxide film on its surface. It also increases strength and
proportional limit.
Base metal alloys generally cast better than noble alloys

JPD 1996 Vol : 75,No. 4 ,367-374

The Gold-Platinum-Palladium (Au-Pt-Pd) System:This is one
of the oldest metal ceramic alloy system. But these alloys are
not used widely today because they are very expensive.
Composition:
Gold – 75% to 88%,Palladium – Upto 11%,Platinum – Upto
8%,Silver – 5%
Trace elements like Indium, Iron and Tin for porcelain bonding.
Gold-Palladium-Silver (Au-Pd-Ag) System:
These alloys were developed in an attempt to overcome the major
limitations in the gold-platinum-palladium system (mainly poor
sag resistance, low hardness & high cost) Two variations on the
basic combination of gold, palladium and silver were created
and are identified as either high-silver or low-silver group.
Composition (High Silver Group):
Gold – 39% to 53% ,Silver – 12% to 22%,Palladium – 25% to
35% trace amount of oxidizable elements are added for
porcelain bonding.
Composition (Low Silver Group):
Gold – 52% to 77%,Silver- 5% to 12%,Palladium – 10% to 33%
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements for porcelain bonding.
Gold-Palladium (Au-Pd) System:
This particular system was developed in an attempt to overcome the
major limitations in the Au-Pt-Pd system and Au-Pd-Ag system.
Mainly-
Porcelain discoloration.
Too high coefficient of thermal expansion & contraction.
Composition:
Gold – 44% to 55%,Gallium – 5% ,Palladium – 35% to 45%,Indium &
Tin – 8% to 12%
Indium, Gallium and Tin are the oxidizable elements responsible for
porcelain bonding.
Palladium-Silver (Pd-Ag) System
This was the first gold free system to be introduced in the United States
(1974) that still contained a noble metal (palladium). It was offered as
an economical alternative to the more expensive gold-platinum-silver
and gold-palladium-silver (gold based) alloy systems.
Composition: (available in two compo.)
1. Palladium – 55% to 60% Silver – 25% to 30%
Indium and Tin
2. Palladium – 50% to 55% Silver – 35% to 40%
Tin (Little or no Indium)
Trace elements of other oxidizable base elements are also present.
HIGH PALLADIUM SYSTEM
Several types of high palladium systems were originally
introduced
More popular composition groups contained cobalt and copper.
Composition (PALLADIUM-COBALT ALLOY):
Palladium – 78% to 88% Cobalt – 4% to 10%
(Some high palladium-cobalt alloys may contain 2% gold)
Trace amounts of oxidizable elements (such as gallium and
indium) are added for porcelain bonding.
COMPOSITION (PALLADIUM-COPPER ALLOYS)
Palladium – 70% to 80% Copper – 9% to 15%
Gold – 1% to 2% Platinum – 1
Some, but not all, high palladium-copper alloys contain small
quantities ( 1% to 2%) of gold and/or platinum. Trace amounts
of the oxidizable elements gallium, indium and tin are added
for porcelain bonding.
JOP 2009, Vol 18, Pg 188 – 184.
 BASE METAL ALLOYS
Low cost
Low density
Greater stiffness
Higher hardness
High resistance to tarnish and corrosion.

Properties of base metal alloy ca be altered by heat

treatment to enable its use for a wide variety of fixed
dental restoration.

JPD 1984 Vol 52 No.6 Pg 821-827

 The melting temperature of base metal alloys
is 1150-1500 c as compared to cast gold alloys
 Addition of 1%-2% beryllium lowers the
melting temperature of ni-cr alloys about 100 c
 Melting temperature is important for selection
casting equipment,investment and selection of
casting techique.
 COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES OF THE VARIOUS
TYPES OF BASE METAL ALLOYS

High noble
Property Co-Cr Ni-Cr-Be CPTi
alloy

Biocompatibility Excellent Excellent Fair Excellent

Density (g/cm3) 14 7.5 8.7 4.5

Elastic Modulus
90 145-220 207 103
(GPa)

Sag resistance Poor-excellent Excellent Excellent Good

Technique Moderately
Minimal Moderately Extremely
sensitivity High

Bond to
Excellent Fair High High
porcelain
According to the ADA the following combinations are
available :
 Cobalt – chromium

 Nickel – chromium

 Nickel – chromium – beryllium

 Nickel – cobalt – chromium

 Titanium – aluminium – vanadium

According to function
CROWN AND BRIDGE ALLOY
 NICKEL based

 COBALT based

METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS:

 NICKEL- CHROMIUM

 TITANIUM

REMOVABLE PARTIAL DENTURE ALLOYS:

 COBALT- CHROMIUM
 NICKEL- CHROMIUM
 COBALT- CHROMIUM- NICKEL
 Nickel –chromium-beryllium alloys
Composition
Nickel - 62 - 82%, Chromium -11 - 20%, Beryllium - upto 2.0%
Advantages
 Low cost
 Low density
 High sag resistance
 Can produce thin castings
 Poor thermal conductor
disadvantages
 Cannot use with Nickel sensitive patients
 Beryllium exposure may be potentially harmful to technicians and patients
 Proper melting and casting is a learned skillBond failure more common in
the Oxide layer
 High hardness (may wear opposing teeth)
 Difficult to solder
 Difficult to cut through cemented castings
Strength and rigidity of nickel chromium
alloys suggested potential usefulness in
fixed prosthodontic procedures.

JPD 1978 Vol- 40 No. 6. Pg 637-641

 Nickel - Chromium - Beryllium - Free Alloys
composition

Nickel - 62 - 77%
Chromium - 11 - 22%
Boron, Iron, Molybdenum, Niobium and Tantalum (small
amount)
 Don't contain Beryllium

 Low cost

 Low density so difficult to cast and polish

 Cannot used in patients who are Nickel sensitive

 Produce more oxides than Nickel - Chromium - Beryllium

alloys
 Porcelain bonded test revealed that Nickel
Chromium Beryllium alloys produce
significantly better porcelain metal bond ,than
Nickel Chromium aloys without beryllium.
 Palladium Copper alloys bond better with
porcelain than Palladium Cobalt alloys .

JPD 1996 Vol : 75,No. 4 ,367-374

 Cobalt-chromium alloys
composition:
cobalt - 53-68%
chromium - 25-34%
Trace elements include molybdenum, rhuthenium.
Advantages:
 Do not contain nickel

 Do not contain beryllium

 poor thermal conductors

 low density low cost

Disadvantages
 More difficult to process than Nickel - Base alloys

 High hardness (may wear opposing dentition)

 Oxidize more than both Nickel based alloys

 Titanium alloys
Uses:
Commercially pure titanium is used for dental implants, surface coatings,
crowns, partial dentures, complete dentures and orthodontic wires
According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), there
are five unalloyed grades of CP Ti (Grades 1-4, and Grade 7), based on the
concentration of
 oxygen (0.18 wt% to 0.40 wt%) and

 iron (0.2 wt% to 0.5 wt%).

 Other impurities include nitrogen (0.03 wt% to 0.05 wt%),

 carbon (0.1 m%), and hydrogen (0.015 wt%).

 Grade 1 CP Ti is the purest and softest form

 It has a moderately high tensile strength
 moderately high stiffness
 low density
 low thermal expansion coefficient.

JOP 2009, Vol 18, Pg 188 – 184.

 The elastic modulus of CP Ti is comparable to that of
tooth enamel and noble alloys, but it is lower than
that of other base metal alloys
 Casting of titanium alloys is difficult due to a high
casting temperature – 2000° c
 Rapid oxidation and reactions with investments
 Melting is done in specially designed furnaces with
an argon atmosphere
 Ti-6Al-4v has been used for PFM restorations
 Used with low expansions porcelains
CAST TITANIUM:
 Cast titanium has been used for more than 50 years, and it has

been recently that precision casting can be obtained from it.

The two most important factors in casting titanium based
materials are its high melting point (1668°C) and chemical
reactivity. Because of the high melting point, special melting
procedures, cooling cycles, mold materials, and casting
equipments are required to prevent metal contamination,
because it readily reacts with hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
at temperatures greater than 600°C. So casting is done in a
vacuum or inert gas atmosphere. The investment materials
such as phosphate bonded silica and phosphate investment
material with added trace metal are used. It has been shown
that magnesium based investment cause internal porosity in
casting.
Because of its low density, it is difficult to cast in centrifugal
casting machine. So advanced casting machine combining
centrifugal, vacuum, pressure and gravity casting with electric
arc melting technology have been developed.

Difficulties in casting Titanium :

 -High melting point

 -High reactivity
 -Low casting efficiency
 -Inadequate expansion of investment
 -Casting porosity
 -Difficulty in finishing
 -Difficulty in welding
 -Requires expensive equipments
 WROUGHT BASE METAL AND GOLD
ALLOYS
When a casting is plastically deformed in any manner, it
is called wrought metal.
Wrought base metal alloys are used in dentistry, mainly
as wires for orthodontics and as clasp arms for
removable partial dentures.
The alloys include:
 Stainless steel : iron-chromium-nickel alloy

 Co-Cr-Ni

 Ni-Ti

 β- Titanium alloys.
 The titanium nickel cast clasp may be suitable
in removable prosthodontic constructions
because of its significantly less permanent
deformation during service.

 Int J Prothodont 1997; 10:547– 552.

 CARBON STEELS:

Steels are iron based alloys that usually contain

less than 1.2% carbon.
The different classes of steels are based on
three possible lattice arrangements of iron.
STAINLESS STEEL
When 12-30% Cr is added to steel, the alloy is called as
Stainless steel
 Ferritic stainless steel:
 Often designated as American Iron and Steel
institute (AISI) series 400 stainless steels.
 Good corrosion resistance.
 Is not hardenable by heat treatment.
 Limited application in dentistry.
 Martensitic stainless steel:
 Share the AISI 400 designation.
 Have high strength and hardness, so used for surgical
and cutting instruments.
 Poor corrosion resistance.
Austenitic stainless steel:

•Most corrosion resistant of all.

•AISI 302 is basic type, containing 18% or 8% Ni
and 0.15% carbon.
•Type 304 has 0.08% of carbon.
•Both are designated as 18-8 stainless steel
•Type 316L (0.03% carbon) is ordinarily employed
for implants.
 DENTAL IMPLANT MATERIALS

Most commonly, metals and alloys are used. Initially

surgical grade stainless steel and Co-Cr alloys were
used because of their acceptable physical properties
and relatively good corrosion resistance and
biocompatibility.
Commercially pure Ti (CPTi) has become one of the
material of choice because of its predictable
interaction with the biological environment.
OTHER METALS:
Gold, Palladium, Tantalum, Platinum and alloys of
these metals.
 The properties of two surgical casting alloys
(vitallium and Ticonium) were determined. It
was found that vitallium was Co-Cr based
alloy. Ticonium Ni, Cr, and Co. Both had
cored microstructures. Vitalluium was superior
in strength and ticonium had significantly
lower hardness and greater ductility.

 JPD 1972 ,Vol- 28 ,No. 1.

 CONCLUSION

Great variety of alloys currently available can lead to

uncertainty in choosing an optimal alloy for a given patient
and situation. Avoid selecting an alloy based on its color
unless all other factors are equal. Know the complete
composition of alloys, and avoid elements that are allergic to
the patient. Use alloy that have been tested for elemental
release and corrosion and have the lowest possible release of
elements.Focus on long term clinical performance.Finally it is
important for the dentist to remember and take up the
responsibility of being responsible for the safety and efficacy
of any restoration.
JPD 2002, Vol 87, No 4, Pg 351 – 363.
 REFERENCES
 Science of dental materials- Anusavice, 11th Edn.
 Restorative dental materials - Craig ,12th Edn.
 Dental biomaterials- E.C. Coombe.
 Applied dental Materials - John F. Mc Cabe,8th Edn.
 Dental materials, Properties & Manipulation -Robert G. Craig et.al, 5th Edn.
 Materials in Dentistry Principles and Application 2nd edition Jack L Ferracane.
 John C.Wataha , Alloys for prosthodontic restoration JPD, vol87,no4,April 2oo2,
 Timothy k. jones :dental implications of nickel hypesesitive,JPD,vol56,no4,1986
 Howard W.Roberts:metal ceramic alloys in dentistry,Journal of prosthodontics
18,2009
 Brien R. Lang: Tarnish and corrosion of noble metal alloys, JPD, 48. 245, 1982.
 Eugene F. Huget, .Characterization of two ceramic – base – metal alloys, JPD, 40,
637, 1978.
 Randolph P. O’ Cornnor, Castability, opaque masking,n and porcelain
bonding of 17 porcelain-fused-to-metal alloys. JPD, 75, 367, 1996.
 Thomas D. Taylor, Clcerative lesions of the palate associated with
removable partial denture castings. JPD 66, 213, 1991.
 Sheldon Winkler, Changes in mechanical properties and microstructure
following heat treatment of a nickel – chromium base alloy. JPD, 52,
821,1984.
 Harold F. Morris, Mechanical properties of metal ceramic alloys, JPD, 61,
160, 1989.
 Simon Civjan, Properties of surgical casting alloys. JPD, 28, 77, 1972.
 John C. Wataha, Biocompatibility of dental casting alloys: a review. JPD,
83, 223, 2000.
 J. Robert Kelly, Nonprecious alloys for use in fixed alloys. JPD, 49, 363,
1983.
 Masato Kotake, Fatigue resistance of Titanium – Nickel Alloy Cast Clasps.
JPD, Int/ Prosthodont 1997; 10;547-552.