CHAPTER 1

VECTOR ANALYSIS
 Learning Outcome

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate between scalars and vectors.

2. Understand the concepts of Cartesian,
Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinate
System to solve the problems related to
electrostatic field.

2
 Introduction

O Electromagnetic (EM) may be regarded as

the study of the interactions between
electric charges at rest and in motion.
O EM is a branch of physics or electrical
engineering in which electric and magnetic
phenomena are studied.
O In this chapter, the basics of vector algebra
will be discussed in Cartesian, cylindrical
and spherical coordinates.
3
 1.1 Scalars and Vectors

O A quantity can be either a scalar or vector.

O A scalar is a quantity that has only
magnitude such as mass, temperature,
number of students in a class or current.
O A scalar is represented by a letter such as A
and B.

4
1.1 Scalars and Vectors (Cont.)

O A vector is a quantity that has both

magnitude and direction.
O Vector quantities include velocity, force,
displacement and electric field intensity.
O To distinguish between scalar and vector, a
vector is represented by a letter with an
arrow on top of it, such as 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵,
ത or by a
letter in boldface type such as A and B.

5
 1.2 Unit Vector

O A vector 𝐴ҧ has both magnitude and direction.

O The magnitude of 𝐴ҧ is written as A or 𝐴 .
O A unit vector along 𝐴ҧ is defined as a vector
whose magnitude is unity (i.e. 1) and its
direction is along 𝐴.ҧ
O A unit vector of 𝐴ҧ may be written as:
𝐴ҧ 𝐴ҧ
𝑎ො = =
𝐴 ҧ 𝐴
⟹ 𝐴ҧ = 𝑎ො 𝐴ҧ
where 𝑎ො is a unit vector for 𝐴ҧ and 𝑎ො = 1
6
 1.2 Unit Vector (Cont.)
O In Cartesian coordinates, a vector 𝐴ҧ may be represented as:
𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 or 𝐴ҧ = 𝑥𝐴 ො 𝑦 +𝑧𝐴
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐴 Ƹ 𝑧
where 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 are called the components of 𝐴ҧ in x, y, and z
directions, respectively; while 𝑥, ො 𝑧Ƹ are unit vectors in the x, y,
ො 𝑦,
and z directions.
O The magnitude of 𝐴ҧ is given by:

𝐴 = 𝐴ҧ = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧2

O The unit vector along 𝐴ҧ is:

𝑥𝐴 ො 𝑦 +𝑧𝐴
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐴 Ƹ 𝑧
𝑎ො =
𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧2
7
 1.2 Unit Vector (Cont.)

𝑧
𝑧
𝑧Ƹ

𝑦ො
𝐴𝑧 𝐴ҧ
𝑦
𝑥ො
𝑎ො 𝐴𝑦
𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑦

Fig. 1.1 The components of 𝐴ҧ

8
 1.3 Position and Distance
Vectors
The position vector of point P is defined as the directed distance from the origin O to P

O A point P may be represented by (x, y, z) and the

position vector of point P may write as:
𝐴ҧ𝑃 = 𝑥𝑥
ො + 𝑦y+
ො 𝑧𝑧 Ƹ
𝑧

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝐴ҧ𝑃

0 𝑦

𝑥
9
Fig. 1.2: The position vector 𝐴ҧ𝑃
 1.3 Position and Distance
Vectors (Cont.)
The distance vector is the displacement from one point to another

O If two points P and Q are given by 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 and 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 , the

distance vector is the displacement from P to Q, that is:
𝐴ҧ𝑃𝑄 = 𝐴ҧ𝑄 − 𝐴ҧ𝑃 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥ො + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑦ො + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝑧Ƹ
𝑧

𝐴ҧ𝑃𝑄 𝑄
𝑃

𝐴ҧ𝑃
𝐴ҧ𝑄

𝑥
10
Fig. 1.3: Distance vector 𝐴ҧ𝑃𝑄
 1.4 Vector Algebra
1.4.1 Laws of Scalar Algebra
O These laws are used for scalar numbers
(shown in Table 1)

Table 1: Laws of scalar algebra

LAW ADDITION MULTIPLICATION

Commutative 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത = 𝐵ത + 𝐴ҧ 𝑘𝐴ҧ = 𝐴𝑘ҧ
Associative 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ 𝑘 𝑙𝐴ҧ = 𝑘𝑙 𝐴ҧ
Distributive 𝑘 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത = 𝑘𝐴ҧ + 𝑘𝐵ത
where k and l are scalars.

11
 1.4.2 Vector Addition
O Two vectors 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵,
ത in the same and opposite
direction such as in Fig. 1.4 can be added together to
give another vector 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത in the same plane.

𝐵ത

𝐴ҧ

Fig. 1.4: Vector 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵ത

O Graphically, 𝐶ҧ is obtained in two ways by either the

parallelogram rule or the head-to-tail rule.
12
1.4.2 Vector Addition (Cont.)

𝐶ҧ 𝐵ത
𝐵ത

𝐴ҧ 𝐴ҧ

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.5: (a) Parallelogram rule

(b) Head-to-tail rule

13
 1.4.2 Vector Addition (Cont.)

O Vector addition obeyed the laws below:

Commutative: 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത = 𝐵ത + 𝐴ҧ
Associative: 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ

O If 𝐴ҧ = 𝑥𝐴
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐴 Ƹ 𝑧 and 𝐵ത = 𝑥𝐵
ො 𝑦 +𝑧𝐴 ො 𝑦 +𝑧𝐵
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐵 Ƹ 𝑧,
addition between these two vectors were done for
each component as follows:
𝐶ҧ = 𝑥ො 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑦ො 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 +𝑧Ƹ 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧

14
 1.4.3 Vector Subtraction

O Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as:

𝐴ҧ − 𝐵ത = 𝐴ҧ + (−𝐵)
ത

where −𝐵ത has the same magnitude as 𝐵ത but in

the opposite direction.
O Thus, −𝐵ത = −𝑏෠ 𝐵ത
where 𝑏෠ is a unit vector for 𝐵.
ത

15
1.4.3 Vector Subtraction (Cont.)

𝐵ത
𝐴ҧ
𝐵ത

−𝐵ത ഥ
𝐷
𝐴ҧ

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.6: (a) Vectors 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵ത

(b) Vector subtraction, 𝐴ҧ − 𝐵ത

16
 Example

If 𝐴ҧ = 10𝑥ො − 4𝑦ො + 6ෝ
𝑧 and 𝐵ത = 2𝑥ො + 𝑦,
ො find:
a) The component of 𝐴ҧ along 𝑦ො
b) The magnitude of 3𝐴ҧ − 𝐵 ത
c) A unit vector along 𝐴ҧ + 2𝐵 ത

17
 Solution
a) The component of 𝑨 ഥ along 𝒚
ෝ
𝐴𝑦 = −4
b) The magnitude of 𝟑𝑨 ഥ−𝑩 ഥ
3𝐴ҧ − 𝐵ത = 3 10, −4, 6 − 2, 1, 0
= 30, −12, 18 − 2, 1, 0
= (28, −13, 18)
Hence, 3𝐴ҧ − 𝐵ത = 282 + −13 2 + 182 = 35.74
c) A unit vector along 𝑨ഥ + 𝟐𝑩ഥ
Let 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ + 2𝐵ത = 10, −4, 6 + 2 2, 1, 0 =
14, −2, 6
𝐶ҧ 14,−2,6
A unit vector along 𝐶ҧ is 𝑎ො𝐶 = =
𝐶ҧ 142 + −2 2 +62
= 0.9113𝑥ො − 0.1302𝑦ො + 0.3906𝑧Ƹ 18
 Exercise 1

Given vector 𝐴ҧ = 𝑥ො + 3𝑧Ƹ and 𝐵ത = 5𝑥ො + 2𝑦ො −

6𝑧.Ƹ Determine:
a) A ഥ+B ഥ
b) 5A ഥ−B ഥ
c) The component of 𝐴ҧ along 𝑦ො
d) A unit vector of 3𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത

Answer: (a) 7, (b) 0, −2, 21 , (c) 0 (d)

0.9117, 0.2279, 0.3419 19
 Exercise 2

Points P and Q are located at 0, 2, 4 and

−3, 1, 5 , respectively. Calculate:
a) The position of vector 𝑃 ത
b) The distance vector from P to Q
c) The distance between P and Q

Answer: (a) 2𝑦ො + 4𝑧Ƹ (b) −3, −1,1 (c) 3.317 20

 1.5 Vector Multiplication
1.5.1 Multiplication with Scalar
O Multiplication between 𝐴ҧ and scalar k is to
change the magnitude of 𝐴ҧ as many as k
times but still in the same direction as 𝐴.ҧ

𝑘𝐴ҧ = 𝑘 𝑥𝐴
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐴
ො 𝑦 + 𝑧𝐴
Ƹ 𝑧
= 𝑥𝑘𝐴
ො 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑘𝐴
ො 𝑦 + 𝑧𝑘𝐴Ƹ 𝑧
ො 𝐴ҧ
= 𝑎𝑘

21
 1.5.2 Scalar or Dot Product
O The dot product of two vectors 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵,
ത written as 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵,
ത is

defined geometrically as the product of the magnitudes of 𝐴ҧ and

𝐵ത and the cosine of the smaller angle between them, when they
are drawn tail to tail.

O Thus
𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵

where 𝜃𝐴𝐵 is the smallest angle between 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵,

ത less
than 180°.

22
 1.5.2 Scalar or Dot Product
(Cont.)
O The result of 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵
ത is called either the scalar product
because it results into a scalar quantity, or the dot product
due to the dot sign.
O If 𝐴ҧ = 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 and 𝐵
ത = 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 , then

𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

O Which is obtained by multiplying 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵

ത component by
component.
O Two vectors 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵 ത are said to be orthogonal with each
other if 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത = 0. 23
 1.5.2 Scalar or Dot Product
(Cont.)
Laws of dot product:
i. Commutative law:
𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത = 𝐵ത ∙ 𝐴ҧ
ii. Distributive law:
𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത + 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐶ҧ
iii. 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐴ҧ = 𝐴ҧ 2 = 𝐴2
Note that
𝑥ො ∙ 𝑦ො = 𝑦ො ∙ 𝑧Ƹ = 𝑧Ƹ ∙ 𝑥ො = 0
𝑥ො ∙ 𝑥ො = 𝑦ො ∙ 𝑦ො = 𝑧Ƹ ∙ 𝑧Ƹ = 1
24
 1.5.3 Vector or Cross Product
O The cross product of two vectors 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵,
ത written as 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵,
ത

Vector quantity whose magnitude is the area of the parallelogram

formed by 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵ത and is in the direction of advance of a right-
handed screw as A is turned into B.

O Thus
𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝑛ො

where 𝑛ො is a unit vector normal to the plane containing 𝐴ҧ

ത
and 𝐵. 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത

𝐵ത Fig. 1.7: The cross

product of 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵ത
𝐵 sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵
𝑛ො
𝜃𝐴𝐵 25
𝐴ҧ
 1.5.3 Vector or Cross Product
(Cont.)
O The direction of 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵
ത can be obtained using the
right-hand rule by rotating the right hand from 𝐴ҧ to 𝐵ത
and the direction of the right thumb gives the
direction of 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵.
ത 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത

𝐵ത Fig. 1.8: The

cross product
𝑛ො of 𝐴ҧ and 𝐵ത
O Basic properties: 𝐴ҧ

𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത = −𝐵ത × 𝐴ҧ 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത + 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത + 𝐴ҧ × 𝐶ҧ
26
 1.5.3 Vector or Cross Product
(Cont.)

O If 𝐴ҧ = 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 and 𝐵
ത = 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 , then
𝑥ො 𝑦ො 𝑧Ƹ
𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
= 𝑥ො 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑦ො 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧
+ 𝑧Ƹ 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥

27
 1.5.3 Vector or Cross Product
(Cont.)
Basic properties:
i. It is not commutative: 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത ≠ 𝐵ത × 𝐴ҧ
ii. It is anticommutative: 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵 ത = −𝐵ത × 𝐴ҧ
iii. It is not associative: 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത × 𝐶ҧ ≠ 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത × 𝐶ҧ
iv. It is distributive: 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵 ത + 𝐶ҧ = 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത + (𝐴ҧ × 𝐶)ҧ
v. 𝐴ҧ × 𝐴ҧ = 0
vi. Note that 𝑥ො × 𝑦ො = 𝑧Ƹ
𝑦ො × 𝑧Ƹ = 𝑥ො
𝑧Ƹ × 𝑥ො = 𝑦ො 28
 1.5.4 Scalar Triple Product
Defined as 𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത × 𝐶ҧ = 𝐵ത ∙ 𝐶ҧ × 𝐴ҧ = 𝐶ҧ ∙ 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത

O Easily obtained by finding the determinant of the 3 × 3

matrix formed by the triple vector.
O If 𝐴ҧ = 𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 , 𝐵
ത = 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 and 𝐶ҧ = 𝐶𝑥 , 𝐶𝑦 , 𝐶𝑧 ;
that is:
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത × 𝐶ҧ = 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝐶𝑥 𝐶𝑦 𝐶𝑧
= + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐵𝑥 𝐶𝑦 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐶𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑥
− 𝐵𝑧 𝐶𝑦 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐶𝑧 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 29
 Example

Given vector 𝐴ҧ = −𝑥ො − 2𝑦ො + 4𝑧Ƹ and 𝐵ത = −𝑥ො +

3𝑦ො − 2𝑧,Ƹ find the smallest angle 𝜃𝐴𝐵 between
𝐴ҧ and 𝐵,
ത and the unit vector 𝑛ො along 𝐴ҧ × 𝐵.
ത

30
 Solution

The angle 𝜃𝐴𝐵 can be obtained by using dot product between

𝐴ҧ and 𝐵:
ത
𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵
−1 𝐴∙ҧ 𝐵ത
Thus, 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = cos
𝐴𝐵
𝐴ҧ ∙ 𝐵ത = −𝑥ො − 2𝑦ො + 4𝑧Ƹ ∙ −𝑥ො + 3𝑦ො − 2𝑧Ƹ
= −1 −1 + −2 3 + 4 −2 = −13
𝐴 = (−1)2 +(−2)2 +(4)2 = 21
B= (−1)2 +(3)2 +(−2)2 = 14
−1
−13
∴ 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = cos = 139.3°
21 14 31
 Solution

The unit vector can be obtained by using cross product:

𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝑛ො
𝑥ො 𝑦ො 𝑧Ƹ
𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത = −1 −2 4
−1 3 −2
= 𝑥ො 4 − 12 + 𝑦ො −4 − 2 + 𝑧Ƹ −3 − 2
= −8𝑥ො − 6𝑦ො − 5𝑧Ƹ
𝐴ҧ × 𝐵ത −8𝑥ො − 6𝑦ො − 5𝑧Ƹ
∴ 𝑛ො = =
𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 21 14 sin 139.3°
= −0.7155𝑥ො − 0.5366𝑦ො − 0.4472𝑧Ƹ
32
 Exercise 3

If 𝐴ҧ = 𝑥ො + 3𝑧Ƹ and 𝐵ത = 5𝑥ො + 2𝑦ො − 6𝑧,Ƹ find 𝜃𝐴𝐵 .

Answer: 120.6°
33
 Exercise 4

Three field quantities are given by

𝑃ത = 2𝑥ො − 𝑧Ƹ
𝑄ത = 2𝑥ො − 𝑦ො + 2𝑧Ƹ
𝑅ത = 2𝑥ො − 3𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ
Determine:
a) 𝑃 ത + 𝑄ത × 𝑃ത − 𝑄ത
b) 𝑄ത ∙ 𝑅ത × 𝑃ത
c) 𝑃ത ∙ 𝑄ത × 𝑅ത
d) sin 𝜃𝑄𝑅 Answer: (a) 2𝑥ො + 12𝑦ො + 4𝑧Ƹ
(b) 14 (c) 14 (d) 0.5976
34
 1.4 ORTHOGONAL
COORDINATE SYSTEM
O The physical quantities dealing with
electromagnetics involves a vector depending on
space.
O All points must be uniquely in space for
determining the magnitude and direction of a
vector.
O This requires an appropriate coordinate system.
O Coordinate system can be represented either in
orthogonal or non orthogonal, but orthogonal
coordinate system is more convenient and
practically used.

35
 CONTINUE
O An orthogonal system is one in which the
coordinates are mutually perpendicular.
O Examples of orthogonal coordinate systems
include the Cartesian, cylindrical and
spherical coordinate.
O There must be three independent variables.
e.g: 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 .
O 𝑢ො1 , 𝑢ො 2 and 𝑢ො 3 are unit vectors for each
surface and in a direction normal to their
surfaces.
36
 1.4.1 Cartesian Coordinate
System
O Requires three variables, x, y and z; also the three
basic vector 𝑥,
ො 𝑦ො and 𝑧.Ƹ
O The range of the coordinate variables are
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑦 < ∞
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
O A point 𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 in coordinate system is located at
the intersection of the three surfaces which is
determined by 𝑥 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦 = 𝑦1 and 𝑧 = 𝑧1 .
O Most of the problems in electromagnetics only can
be solved by using line, surface and volume integral

40
 CONTINUE
O Fig. 1.10 shows the points P and Q whose coordinates
are 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝑄(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦, 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧).
O The movement from point P to point Q cause the
variables to vary from 𝑥 to 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 to 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑧 to
𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧.
O These changes will caused the differential volume
elements in Cartesian coordinates given by 𝑑𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧.
ഥ is given by
O Differential displacement, 𝑑𝑙
ഥ = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑙 ො + 𝑦𝑑𝑦ො + 𝑧𝑑𝑧 Ƹ
41
 CONTINUE
O The surfaces have differential areas 𝑑𝑠 of
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 and 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥.
O There are three differential areas which are
dsx  xˆdsx  xˆdydz (when dx  0)
ds y  yˆds y  yˆdxdz (when dy  0)
dsz  zˆdsz  zˆdxdy (when dz  0)

Fig. 1.10: Differential element

in Cartesian coordinates
42
CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES

Differential displacement:
𝑑𝑙 ҧ = 𝑑𝑟𝑟Ƹ + 𝑟𝑑𝜙𝜙෠ + 𝑑𝑧𝑧45Ƹ
 CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES

Differential normal area:

𝑑 𝑆ҧ = 𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧𝑟Ƹ = 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝑧𝜙෠ = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝑧Ƹ 46
 SPHERICAL COORDINATES

Differential displacement:
𝑑𝑙 ҧ = 𝑑𝑟𝑟Ƹ + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝜃෠ + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙𝜙෠ 47
 SPHERICAL COORDINATES

Differential normal area:

𝑑𝑆ҧ = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑟Ƹ = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙𝜃෠ = 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟𝜙෠ 48
 1.4.2 Cylindrical Coordinate
System
O Three variables used are 𝑟, 𝜙 and 𝑧 while the three basic
෠ and 𝑧.Ƹ
vectors are 𝑟,Ƹ 𝜙,
A variable r, at a point P is directed radially outward,
normal to the z-axis.
 is measured from the x-axis in the xy-plane to r.
z is the same as in the Cartesian system.

O The range of the variables are

0<𝑟<∞
0 < 𝜙 < 2𝜋
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞
Fig. 1.11: A view of a point in cylindrical 49
coordinate system.
 CONTINUE
O Yields a differential volume when the coordinate increase
from 𝑟, 𝜙 and 𝑧 to 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟, 𝜙 + 𝑑𝜙 and 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧.
O When the angle vary from 𝜙 to 𝜙 + 𝑑𝜙, the changes in the
distance is 𝑟𝑑𝜙.

Fig 1.12: Differential elements of the cylindrical 50

coordinate system
 1.4.2 Spherical Coordinate
System
O Three variables used are 𝑟, 𝜃 and 𝜙 while the three basic
vectors are 𝑟,Ƹ 𝜃෠ and 𝜙.
෠
A variable r is defined as a distance from the origin to any point.

 is defined as the angle between the +z axis and the r line.

 is also an angle and exactly the same as in coordinate system. It is the
angle between the x axis and the projection in the z-plane of the line
drawn from the origin to the point.
O The range of the variables are:
0<𝑟<∞
0<𝜃<𝜋
0 < 𝜙 < 2𝜋
Fig. 1.13: A view of a point in spherical
51
coordinate system
 CONTINUE
O The changes in 𝑑𝜃 and 𝑑𝜙 will cause a change in
distances to 𝑟𝑑𝜃 and 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙.

Fig. 1.14: Differential elements in spherical

52
coordinate system
 1.5 DEL OPERATOR
O The del operator, 𝛻 (nabla) is the vector differential
operator.
O In Cartesian,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
O This operator is not a vector itself but it operates on a
scalar or vector function.
O The operator is useful in defining:
1. The gradient of a scalar, 𝛻𝑉
2. The divergence of a vector A, 𝛻 ∙ 𝐀
3. The curl of a vector A, 𝛻 × 𝐀
53
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, 𝛻 2 𝑉
 1.5 DEL OPERATOR
(Continue)
O For cylindrical coordinates:

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 = 𝑟Ƹ + ෠
𝜙 + 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

O For spherical coordinates:

𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
𝛻 = 𝑟Ƹ + 𝜃෠ + 𝜙෠
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙
54
 1. Gradient of a Scalar
O The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that
represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of V.
O Example: Determine the gradient of 𝑈 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧
O Solution:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝛻𝑈 = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑥ො + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑧 𝑦ො + 𝑥𝑦𝑧Ƹ

55
 2. Divergence of a Vector
O The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward
flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
O Example: Determine the divergence of 𝑃 ത = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑥ො +
𝑥𝑧𝑧Ƹ
O Solution:
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻∙𝑃 =ത 𝑃𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦 + 𝑃𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑥 𝑦𝑧 + 0 + 𝑥𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥
56
 3. Curl of a Vector
O The curl of A is an axial vector whose magnitude is the
maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area
tends to zero.
ത = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑥ො + 𝑥𝑧𝑧Ƹ
O Example: Determine the curl of 𝑃
O Solution:
𝜕𝑃𝑧 𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑥 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑥
𝛻 × 𝑃ത = − 𝑥ො + − 𝑧 𝑦ො + − 𝑧Ƹ
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 0 − 0 𝑥ො + 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑦ො + 0 − 𝑥2𝑧 𝑧Ƹ
= 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑦ො − 𝑥 2 𝑧𝑧Ƹ

57
 4. Laplacian of a Scalar
O The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as 𝛻 2 𝑉,
is the divergence of the gradient of V.
O Example: Find the Laplacian of 𝑈 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧
O Solution:
𝜕 2𝑈 𝜕 2𝑈 𝜕 2𝑈
𝛻 2𝑈 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕 2 𝜕
= 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑦
58
 CONTINUE
O This operator is useful in defining:

59