Chapter 3

Early Societies in
South and East Asia
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Harappan Society

 Harappan Society
 Major society built by indigenous Indian peoples,
3000–1900 B.C.E.
 Impossible to follow development
 Remains under water
 Lack of deciphered written records

 The Indus River

 Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges
 Agricultural surplus led to population growth
 Fed two large cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-daro

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Harappan Society

 Harappa and Mohenjo-daro

 Walled cities
 Marketplaces, temples, public buildings
 Standardized weights evident throughout region
 Specialized Labor and Trade
 Foreign and domestic trade
 Indus valley; Persia; Hindu Kush; Mesopotamia

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Harappan society and its neighbors,
ca. 2000 B.C.E.

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Harappan Society and Culture

 Social Distinctions
 Evidence of social stratification
 Dwelling sizes, decoration
 Worship of mother goddess; influence on later
Indian culture
 Harappan Decline
 After 1900 B.C.E., entered decline
 Ecological degradation

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The Aryans and India

 The Early Aryans

 Nomadic, pastoral
 Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle
 Cattle principle measure of wealth
 The Vedas
 Sanskrit: sacred tongue
 Vedas honored Aryan gods; orally transmitted
 Four Vedas; most important is Rig Veda
 1,028 hymns to gods; written down in 600 B.C.E.

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The Aryans and India

 The Vedic Age

 Vedas refer to conflicts between Aryans and indigenous
dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”)
 Aryan Migrations in India
 Early concentration in Punjab; migrations further south
 Development of iron metallurgy
 Increasing reliance on agriculture
 Population growth encouraged further migration
 Tribal connections evolved into political structures
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Origins of the Caste System

 Caste and Varna

 Origins in Aryan domination of indigenous peoples
 Four main varnas:
 Brahmins, priests
 Kshatriyas, warriors and aristocrats
 Vaishyas, cultivators, artisans, merchants
 Shudras, landless peasants and serfs
 Also, untouchables

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Brahmins from Bengal

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Origins of the Caste System

 Subcastes and Jati

 Jati subsystem of castes
 Hereditary subcastes determined by occupation
 Caste and Social Mobility
 Caste system foundation of social stability
 Social mobility collective effort of entire jati
 The Lawbook of Manu
 Reflective of Aryan patriarchal social order
 Women subject to guidance of men

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Aryan Religion

 Aryan Religion
 Indra; ritual sacrifice
 Spirituality
 Mystical thought, influenced by indigenous peoples
 Emergence of tradition of religious speculation
 Transmigration
 Reincarnation

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The Blending of Aryan and
Indigenous Values
 Brahman, the Universal Soul
 Upanishads
 Texts that represent blending of Aryan and indigenous
traditions; composed 800–400 B.C.E.
 Brahman: the universal soul

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The Blending of Aryan and
Indigenous Values
 Teachings of the Upanishads
 Samsara: reincarnation
 Karma: accounting for specific incarnations
 Moksha: mystical ecstasy
 Cultivation of personal integrity; vegetarian diet
 Religion and Vedic Society
 Upanishads dovetailed with social order
 Reinforced varna

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Political Organization in Early China

 The Yellow River

 Almost 3,000 miles: Tibet to the Yellow Sea
 Deposits fertile, light-colored soil
 Periodic flooding: “China’s sorrow”

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The Xia and Shang Dynasties

 The Xia Dynasty

 ca. 2200 B.C.E.
 Organized through village network
 Hereditary monarchy
 Flood control
 The Shang Dynasty
 1766–1122 B.C.E.
 Written records; material remains

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The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties,
2200–256 B.C.E.

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The Xia and Shang Dynasties

 Bronze Metallurgy and Chariots

 Technology aided rise and success of Shang
 Metallurgy; horse-drawn chariots, wheeled vehicles
 Shang Political Organization
 Vast network of fortified cities, loyal to center
 Capital moved six times
 The Shang Capital at Yin
 Complex royal palace; archives; residential areas

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The Zhou Dynasty

 The Rise of the Zhou

 Toppled Shang in 1122 B.C.E.; ruled most of northern
and central China until 256 B.C.E.
 The Mandate of Heaven
 Basis of political legitimacy
 Political Organization
 Decentralization of authority
 Development of cheap iron weaponry; eventually used
to resist central government
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The Zhou Dynasty

 Decline of the Zhou

 Nomadic invaders weakened Zhou dynasty, beginning
eighth century B.C.E.
 Internal dissention: the Period of the Warring States
(403–221 B.C.E.)
 Zhou dynasty officially ended in 256 B.C.E.

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The Social Order

 Ruling Elites
 Ruling classes had great advantage
 Hereditary privilege; palatial compounds
 Supported by agricultural surplus, tax revenues
 Defended by monopoly on bronze weaponry
 Served by class of artisans, craftsmen
 Peasants
 Large class of semi-servile peasants
 Slaves
 Enemy warriors captured in battle; hard labor
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Family and Patriarchy

 Veneration of Ancestors
 Devotion to family, family solidarity
 Father ritual head of family rites
 Patriarchal Society
 Authority vested in elderly male heads of house
 Women’s Influence
 Fu Hao
 Women’s influence began to wane in later Shang and
Zhou dynasties
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Oracle Bones and
Early Chinese Writing
 Oracle Bones
 Used for communicating with spirit world, determining
future
 Question written on animal bones
 Then heated over fire; cracks examined for omens
 Early archaeological evidence of Chinese writing
 Evolution of Chinese script

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Oracle Bone from Shang Dynasty

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Oracle Bones and
Early Chinese Writing
 Zhou Literature
 Confucius
 Book of Changes
 Manual for divination
 Book of History
 Book of Etiquette
 Book of Songs
 Little survived
 Many destroyed by emperor of Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E.

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Relations with Nomadic Peoples of
Central Asia
 Steppe Nomads
 Poor lands for cultivation, extensive herding activities
 Became experienced horseback riders
 Organized powerful militarized herding societies
 Nomadic Society
 Intermediaries in trade networks
 Tense relations with Chinese

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The Southern Expansion of
Chinese Society
 The Yangzi Valley
 Excellent for rice cultivation
 Irrigation system developed
 Population increased
 The State of Chu
 Autonomous, challenged Zhou dynasty
 Culture heavily influenced by Chinese

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