BOOKS 3

Chapter 1
Introducing Integrated Circuits
What is integrated circuits?
An integrated circuit (also called an IC or just a chip ) is an entire
electronic circuit consisting of multiple individual components such as
transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, and the conductive pathways
that connect all the components, all made from a single piece of silicon
crystal.
 How Integrated Circuits Are Made
The process for manufacturing an IC is complex, and varies depending on the type of chip being made. But the
following process is typical:
1. A large, cylindrical piece of silicon crystal is shaved into thin wafers about onehundredth of an inch thick.
Each of these wafers will be used to create several hundred or thousand finished integrated circuits.
2. A special photoresist solution is deposited on top of the wafer.
3. A mask is applied to over the photoresist. The mask is an image of the actual circuit, with some areas
transparent to allow light through and others opaque to block the light.
4. The wafer is exposed to intense ultraviolet light, which etches the wafer under the transparent portions
of the mask but leaves the areas under the opaque parts of the mask untouched.
5. The mask is removed and any remaining photoresist is cleaned off.
6. The wafer is then exposed to a doping material, which creates n-type and p-type regions in the etched
areas of the wafer.
7. If the circuit design calls for multiple layers stacked on top of one another, the process is repeated for
each layer until all of the layers have been created.
8. The individual integrated circuits are then cut apart and mounted in their final packaging.
Integrated Circuit Packages
Integrated circuits come in a variety of different package types, but
nearly all the ICs you’ll work with in hobby electronics come in a type of
package called dual inline package, or DIP . Figure 1-1 shows several ICs
in DIP packages.
A DIP package consists of a rectangular plastic or resin case that
encloses the IC itself, with two rows of pins on the long sides of the
rectangle. The pins on each side jut out a bit from the case, then turn
straight down. This arrangement makes the package look like an insect.
(In fact, one common way of wiring circuits that use DIP chips is to glue
them to a board upside down and solder wires directly to the pins; this
technique is called dead-bug wiring. )
Each pin in a DIP package is numbered. Looking down on the package
from above, and you’ll see an orientation mark, usually a notch,
groove, or dot. Orient the package so that this mark is on the top, and
pin 1 is immediately to the left of the mark. The pins are numbered
counterclockwise, working down the left side and then back up the
right side until you get to the last pin, which is immediately to the right
of the orientation mark. In case my explanation of DIP pin numbering
doesn’t make sense, have a look at Figure 1-3 .
The DIP package in Figure 1-3 is for an eight-pin DIP. Larger DIPs have
more pins, but the numbering scheme is always the same: Pin 1 is to
the left of the orientation mark, and the remaining pins are numbered
counterclockwise from pin 1.
Powering ICs
In most DIP integrated circuits, two of the pins are used to provide power to
the circuit. One of these is designated for positive voltage, typically identified
with the symbol VCC . The other is the ground pin. For example, the 555
timer chip (which you learn about in Chapter 2 of this minibook) requires a
positive supply voltage between 4.5–15 V at pin 8, and pin 1 is connected to
ground. In the case of ICs that contain two or more separate circuits, the
circuits usually share a common power supply. Thus, even though a 556 dual
timer chip contains two separate 555 timer circuits, the chip has just one
positive voltage pin and one ground pin. Also, you should be aware that
some integrated circuits call for separate positive and negative supply
voltages, not just a positive and a ground connection. You can create a power
supply like that using the circuit shown in Figure 1-6 .
Reading IC Data Sheets
Before you work with a specific type of IC, you should download a copy of the data sheet for the IC. An IC datasheet contains loads of
useful information. In addition to basic information such as the manufacturer’s name and the IC part number, you’ll find information
such as
• A description of what the circuit does.
• Detailed pinout descriptions that tell you the purpose of each pin.
• A diagram of the internal circuitry of the chip. For simple circuits, you may get the entire detailed
• diagram. For more complicated chips, you’ll get a conceptual diagram instead of a detailed schematic.
• Detailed electrical specifications, such as maximum voltage you can feed the circuit via the VCC pin or the maximum current loads
for output pins.
• Operating conditions such as maximum and minimum temperatures.
• Charts and graphs that illustrate the circuit’s behavior for different operating conditions.
• Formulas for calculating operating characteristics of the circuit. For example, if the operation of the circuit depends on an external
RC (resistor/capacitor) circuit, you’ll get formulas for calculating how these external components will affect the operation of the
circuit.
• Sample circuit diagrams.
• Mechanical descriptions including dimensions.
Popular Integrated Circuits
Literally thousands of different types of integrated circuits are available.
Most of these were designed for very specific applications. However,
many integrated circuits have been designed for generalpurpose use
and so are used in a wide variety of circuits.
• 555 Timer
The 555 timer chip was invented in 1971 but remains today one of the most
popular integrated circuits in use. By some estimates, more than a billion of
them are made and sold every year.

The 555 can be configured in several different ways. In one configuration

(called monostable ), it works like an egg timer: You set it, and then it goes
off after a certain period of time has elapsed. In adifferent configuration
(called astable ), it works like a metronome, triggering pulses at regular
intervals.
Besides the basic 555 chip, which comes in an 8-pin DIP package, you can
also get a 556 dual timer, which contains two independent 555 timers in a
single 14-pin DIP package. Because many common circuits call for two 555
timers working together, the 556 package is very popular.
• 741 and LM324 Op-Amp
An op-amp is a special type of amplifier circuit that has many
applications throughout electronics. Although there are many different
types of op-amp circuits, the 741 and LM324 are the most common.
The 741 is a single op-amp circuit in an eight-pin DIP package. It was
first introduced in 1968 and is still one of the most widely used
integrated circuits ever made. The 741 is one of those ICs that require
both positive and negative voltage, as described earlier in the section,
“Powering ICs .”
The LM324 was introduced in 1972. It consists of four separate op-amp
circuits in a single 14-pin DIP package. Unlike the 741, the LM324
doesn’t require separate negative and positive voltage supplies.
• 78xx Voltage Regulator
The 78xx is a family of simple voltage regulator integrated circuits. A
voltage regulator is a circuit that accepts an input voltage that can vary
within a certain range and produces an output voltage that is a
constant value, regardless of fluctuations in the input voltage.
The xx in 78xx represents the actual voltage regulated by the chip. For
example, a 7805 produces a 5 V output. The input voltage must be at
least a couple of volts over the output voltage, and can be as high as 35
V.
• 74xx Logic Family
One of the primary uses for integrated circuits is for digital electronics, and the
74xx is one of the oldest and still most widely used families of digital integrated
circuits. The 74xx family includes a wide variety of chips that provide basic
building blocks for digital circuits. Thus, you won’t find complete
microprocessors in the 74xx family. But you will find circuits such as logic gates,
flip-flops, counters, buffers, and so on.
THANK YOU
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