The Respiratory System

The Respiratory System can be divided into

upper and lower respiratory tracts. The
upper respiratory tract consists of the nasal
and oral cavities, paranasal sinuses, the
pharynx and larynx. Tissues of the nasal
and oral cavities and paranasal sinuses
warm and moisten incoming air. The
pharynx or throat is a muscular tube where
the nasal and oral cavities open posteriorly.
The epiglottis remains open during
breathing, allowing air from the pharynx into
the larynx. Air passing through the larynx
enters the lower respiratory tract via the
trachea. The trachea bifurcates or splits into
the right and left bronchi. The bronchi enter
the lungs and continue to bifurcate into
smaller segments. The smallest terminal
structures of the respiratory system are the
alveolar sacs. The alveoli are tiny air sacs
that allow for the re-oxygenated of the blood.
 The Digestive System

The digestive system is specialized for the

breakdown of food and absorption of its
nutrients into the blood. The digestive
system can be divided into upper and lower
portions. The upper digestive structures are
the oral cavity, teeth, tongue, pharynx,
esophagus and the parotid, sublingual and
submandibular glands. These structures are
involved in taking food into the oral cavity,
chewing and mixing food with saliva.
Then moving the food to the stomach. The
lower digestive tract includes the stomach.
The lower digestive tract includes the
stomach, small intestine, large intestine
pancreas, liver and gallbladder. The stomach
uses acids and enzymes to breakdown food.
Digested food, now called chime, empties
into the duodenum. Nutrients are further
digested by bile and pancreatic juices then
absorbed into the blood. Absorbed
nutrients travel via the portal system to the
liver where they are processed.
Indigestible substances pass into the colon
where fluids are removed. The remaining
materials called feces, accumulate in the
rectum and are later expelled through the
anus.

The Liver

The liver gallbladder and pancreas are

accessory digestive organs. Each has a
special part in the breakdown of food. The
liver is the largest internal organ of the body.
It lies on the upper right side of the
abdomen, just below the diaphragm. The
liver processes food for the body, cleans the
blood of toxins, helps regulate sugar levels
in the blood and produce bile. Bile from the
liver is stored here. The pancreas is located
behind the stomach. It secretes pancreatic
juice and insulin. As digested food from the
stomach inters the duodenum, the
gallbladder secretes bile through the
common bile duct and the pancreas
secretes pancreatic juice through the
pancreatic duct. These two ducts join in the
head of the pancreas. The mixture of bile
and pancreatic juices empties into the
duodenum to further aid digestion.
 Definition of Reading
Many definitions of reading are explained by
some specialist, some of them are
complementary one another, but any others
contradictory. Reading is not simple
mechanical skill: nor is it a narrow scholastic
tool. Properly cultivated, it is essentially a
thoughtful process. It should be developed as
a complex organization of patterns of higher
metal process. Reading also defines
responding. The response may be at the
surface level of “calling” the word. It may be
the somewhat deeper level of understanding
the explicit meaning of sentence, paragraph
or passage.
Another definition says, reading is the
process of giving the significance
intended by the writer to the graphic
symbols by relating them to one’s own
found of experience.
Frank Smith in his Understanding
Reading book defines that Reading is
an act of communication in which
information is transferred from a
transmitter to receiver.
According to Miles A. Tinker and Contance M.
McCullough, Reading involves identification
and recognition of printed or written symbols
which serve as stimuli for the recall of
meanings built up through past experience,
and further the concentration of new
meanings through the reader’s manipulation
of relevant concepts already in his
possession. Soedarsono explained, Reading is
a complex activity that not gives a great
amount of action separately. Daniel Hittleman
in his Development Reading book, defines
Reading is a verbal process interrelated with
thinking and with all other communication
abilities – listening, speaking, and writing.
 Aspects of Reading
Some aspects of reading based on normal reading
situation consist of three kinds. They are word
recognition, comprehension and reflections.

A. Word Recognition

The degree of excellence in reading is determined,

to a large extent, by the ability to recognize and
pronounce words. The core of view that reading is
chiefly skill in recognizing words can be accurate by
the form of the word itself.
Decoding the printed page is one of examples of
recognizing the oral equivalent of the written
symbol.
B. Comprehension

Comprehension is one of competence that must be had by

the readers. Reading just is not transferring the symbol
printed from page to the brain but the readers have to
comprehend the content of the reader’s read.
Comprehension in reading becomes important because it
makes the readers have meaningful in their reading. In
other word, their reading is not useless.

There are three levels of reading comprehension. First:

literal reading, second: Aesthetic reading, and third is
Critical reading.

Literal reading is the ability to know all of the directions in

the text and also understand exact words, meanings and
characters. Aesthetic reading is the ability to appreciate
what the reader’s read before. Critical reading consists of
making factual distinction between common ideas, facts
and opinion. This capability is needed for valid
interpretation and analysis. It means that the readers able
to analyze what the reader’s read after
C. Reflection

Many educators have pointed out that word recognition

and comprehension does not g, reading more
advantages for the readers when they apply what they
read after. Globally, this aspect involves comprehension
and word recognition.

Look, the process of reading necessary to be able to

hold ideas they occur and to conceptualize meaningful
interpretation through reflection. This process compares
the written stimuli with the reader’s experiences.

From three aspects of reading above, the writer hopes to

the readers that all of the readers who read any book are
needed to know the aspects of reading. In order to make
their reading more meaningful, of course by
comprehend all of those aspects above.