1.

Superconductivity
impure metal
For pure metals:   0 when T  0 K


For impure metals:    0 when T  0 K
Pure metal

For Super conductors: T

  0 between T  0 K to T  Tc
Tc = critical temperature of the material.

Tc (Hg) = 4.18 K ( = 0) Superconductor

At T = 4.20 K, R = 0.08  Tc
At T = 4.18 K, R = 3 x 10-6 
T
Thus dc electrical resistivity in the superconducting phase transition
vanishes at Tc. The transition takes place a very sharply.
Tc is characteristic of a material as
Tc for Pb = 7K; Nb = 9 K; Nb3Ge = 23 K

For YBa2Cu2)3 = 123 K (High Tc superconducting ceramic)

2. Properties of a Superconductor

1. Persistent current

2. Effect of magnetic field – Meissner effect

T  Tc T  Tc T  Tc
H  any value H  Hc H  Hc
If material is paced in a magnetic field

B  0 H  0 M
M
At T < Tc, B = 0 , therefore 0  0 H  0 M     1
H
Thus, characteristic of a superconductor, below critical temperature.

1.   0 Perfect conductor

2.   1 Perfect diamagnetic

T  Tc 1
M superconductor
Normal

 0 conductor
B0 Hc
H T
T  Tc
3. Critical magnetic field vs. temperature

For temperature between T H c (T ) Nb

= 0 to T = Tc, the critical
magnetic field follows Pb
following parabolic law: Hg
T 2 0
H c (T )  H c (0)[1  ( ) ] 4.18 K T
Tc

Where Hc(0) is the critical field at T = 0 K, this is the maximum

value for applied magnetic field.

If T = Tc, Hc(Tc) = 0

Due to Meissner effect for fields less than Hc the magnetic flux
density inside the superconductor vanishes. The magnetization M
is produced by the surface currents which circulate in a direction
so as to cancel the external flux at every point inside the
superconductor.
4. Type of superconductors

Mixed

2. Type-II superconductors

Type-I: Pb, Tc = 7 K, Hc = 4.8x104 Amp/ m

Type-II: Pb + 2% by weight Nb, Hc1 = 3x104 Amp/ m and Hc2 = 8x104 Amp/m

Pb + 20% by weight Nb, Hc1 = 0.6x104 Amp/ m and Hc2 = 30x104 Amp/m
5. Isotope effect

TcM

Where  is isotope effect coefficient. It depends on material and

its value ranges from 0.4 – 0.5.

Examples: Hg (199) has Tc = 8.185 K while that Hg

(203) has Tc = 4.14 K
1

TcM 2

1

M Tc  const.
2

M 1 12 Tc 2
( ) 
M2 Tc1
 V  iR
l
V  i
A
V 
 i
l A
 E  J

For a superconductor:  =0, therefore, E0

 E  0, B  0,   0
 
  B B
 E    0
t t

 B  const.
Thus Meissner effect and Maxwell’s equations are inconsistent.
Therefore Maxwell’s equation can’t explain superconductivity.
6. London’s Equation
Assumptions of London’s Theory:
The conduction electrons in superconducting materials are
classified in two categories; (1) Super-electrons and (2) Normal
electrons.

(i) At T = 0 K, all electrons are super-electrons.

(ii) As the temperature increases between T = 0 to T = Tc, the
proportion of normal electrons increases.
(iii) At T > Tc, all electrons behave as normal electrons

The super-electrons are not scattered by thermal vibrations in the

lattice of the superconducting metal while normal electrons are
always scattered by vibrating lattice.
Let us consider that there are n conduction electrons per unit
volume in a superconducting metal. Out of this, let ns be super-
electron density and nn be normal electron density. Thus,
n  ns  nn
The total current density may be written as,
J  Js  Jn
J s  ns evs (6.1)

Here, Js and Jn are current densities due to super-electrons and

normal electrons. vs is the velocity of super-electrons.

Under the action of applied electric field, E, the super-electrons

follow the equation of motion:

dvs dvs eE
m  eE  
dt dt m
 Differentiating equation (6.1)

dJ s dvs
 ns e
dt dt
dJ s eE
  ns e
dt m
dJ s ns e 2 E
  (6.2)
dt m

This is London’s first equation. Taking curl of this equation we have

 2

 dJ s  ns e E
  
dt m


d  
dt
 Js  
ns e 2  
m
 E  
  
d   ns e 2  B    B
(  J s )    ( Since,   E   )
dt m  t  t
 
According to Maxwell’s equation,
  
  B  0 J s (Since displacement D =0
inside a superconductor)
Taking curl of both sides
   
    
    B  0   J s

Taking derivative w. r. t. time


d   
dt

    B  0
d  
dt
 Js   

  ns e  B 
 
2
d   
    B   B  0
2
 
dt m  t 


ns e  B 
 
2
d
  B  0
2
 
dt m  t 

  

2 n
m
e
  B   0 s B
2 


 B
 B 2
2  (6.3)
L
1
m  m  2
Where, L 2
  L   
 0 ns e 2  n
 0 s e 2


L is known as London’s penetration depth.

B  1
B 
B  Bdt  L 2 
2   dt
B
0 B0

B
 B 
1
   dB  2
2
 dB
B0 L B0

Where B0 denote the magnetic flux at t = 0.

   1  
  ( B  B0 )  2 ( B  B0 )
2

L
This equation gives a particular solution B = B0, i.e. magnetic flux
within the metal will be constant when metal makes a transition from
normal to superconducting state. This is against the Meissner effect
which requires that B = 0 in the superconducting state.
Then, London proposed that equation (6.3) may be replaced by

 B
 B 2
2 (6.4)
L
From this equation if B = B0,

 B
 B0
2
But, 0
L 2

Thus other solution B = 0 satisfy the above relation which in turn

satisfies Meissner effect.
General solution of equation (6.4) is
x

L (supposing that applied field is
B z ( x )  B z ( 0) e
in z-direction).

B ( 0) Bz
At x = L, Bz ( x )  z
e
Vacuum superconductor

Thus L is a distance from the surface 0 x

of the metal in which the field decays to
1/e of its value outside the metal.
1
 m  2
L   
  0 ns e
2

Substituting m = 9.1x10-31 kg, 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C and ns
= 1028 /m3, we have,
1
 9.1 10 31
 2
L  

  L  5.32  10 8 m  532 A
 4  10  10 (1.6  10 )
7 28 19 2

7. Variation of L with temperature
1
 m  2
L is given as L   
  0 n s e 2

Concentration of super-electrons (ns) varies with temperature and
follows the equation
 T 
4

ns (T )  ns (0) 1     (7.1)
  Tc  
ns (T ) Super-
Normal
electrons
electrons
Where ns (0) is no. of super-
Tc
electrons at 0 K. At T = 0, ns(0) = n
T 0
while at T = Tc, ns = 0 and nn = n T
1
  2
Substituting ns in the equation for L,  
 
m
L (T )   
  T   2
4

  0 ns (0) 1     e 
   Tc   

 1
  2
 
 
m
L (T )   
  T   2
4

  0 ns (0) 1     e 
   Tc   

1
 m  2
Let us define, L (0)   
  0 n s ( 0) e
2


L (0)
Then, L (T )  1
 T 4
 2 L (T )

1    
  Tc  

L (0)
Thus At T = Tc, L =  and
at T = 0, L = L(0) T Tc

At T = Tc, L =  means field has completely penetrated inside

the material and therefore the materials is no longer a
superconductor. The superconductivity is destroyed at Tc.
8. Variation of specific heat of superconductor with temperature
The specific heat Cv for a normal metal at low temperature
consists of two contributions, Cve from electrons in the conduction
band and Cvl, from the lattice. Thus Lattice specific heat
e l
Cv  Cv  Cv  aT  bT 3
Electronic
specific heat

1. For normal metals, the electronic sp. heat increases linearly

with temperature and decreases to 0 at 0K.
superconductor
2. For superconductors, the
electronic sp. heat shows a e
rapid jump at Tc and decreases
Cv
Normal
non-linearly with the
temperature and becomes 0 at
T
0K. Tc
3. The behavior of Cve is found to be exponential in the nature i.e.


e
Cv  Ae k BT

The exponential behavior of the variation of specific heat with

temperature suggests the existence of an energy gap in the
excitation spectrum of the conduction electrons in the metal.
Empty

Empty
EF EF 2
Filled Filled
E E

N (E ) N (E )

Metal Superconductor
1. In normal metal all electrons below Fermi level are normal
electrons and they can move freely into the conduction region by
application of small potential.
2. For superconductors, below the Fermi level some electrons are
normal electrons and some are super electrons and at the Fermi
level there is an energy gap. This gap is only for normal electrons
and not for super electrons. Super-electrons can cross into the
conduction band without applying minimum energy equivalent to
the energy gap.

3. The energy gap also varies with temperature.

1 2  ( 0)
 (T ) T experimentally  3.5
 1.74(1  ) 2 k BTc
 ( 0) Tc

 Figure: Variation of superconductor

energy gap with temperature.

T Tc
 9. BCS (Bardeen-Cooper–Schrieffer) Theory
Under certain situations, the electrons may attract each other. If
they attract then they form a pair of two electrons each known as
Cooper pair.

Cooper pair is new particle with a mass 2m and charge 2e.

Best condition for the formation of Cooper pair is

(i) The two electrons have equal and opposite momentum and
(ii) Equal and opposite spin.

Potential energy of the two electron system consists of two terms :

(i) Repulsive term (Vr) due to columbic repulsion between two
charges
(ii) Attractive term (Vph) in the superconducting phase.
Thus total potential energy is

V  Vr  V ph

ke 2
  V ph
r

Attractive Attractive

This will mean that net attraction between two

If V 0 electrons and their energy is lowered. Under this
condition Cooper pairs will be formed.

In this condition, repulsion will dominate and

If V 0 Cooper pairs will not be formed and both
electrons will remain separated.
Binding energy (Energy Gap):

It is the energy required to break the Cooper pair into two

separated electrons: If,

Ec = Energy of Cooper pairs and EF = Energy of free state, then,

E g  E c  E F  10 4 eV
Mechanism of attraction between two electrons:

(i) The first electron e1 distorts the ion and creates a dipole in it
i.e. it polarizes the ion.
(ii) Suppose a nearby second electron sees this distorted ion, it
gets attracted towards this ion.
(iii) The net result is that the two electrons e1 and e2 come closer
to each other and their energy is lowered.
(iv) They from pairs.
Why superconductivity in materials:

Resistance in a material arises due to scattering of electrons from

imperfections/ impurities/ thermal vibrations.

In superconductor, we have Cooper pairs therefore net momentum

of the pair is 0 (because momentum is equal and opposite).
Therefore, de-Broglie wavelength of Cooper pairs which is given as

h

p
will be very large. Thus for Cooper pairs,

 >> a (size of the obstacle)

In this situation, the scattering of the Cooper pairs would be
negligible by imperfections/ impurities/ thermal vibrations and
hence  = 0.
- At T=0, all electrons in superconducting material will form Cooper
pairs and hence conductivity would be maximum because of no
scattering.

- As T increases, some Cooper pairs are formed and some

become normal electrons, while Cooper pairs will not scatter, but
normal electrons will scatter, there fore   0.

- As T increases, some Cooper pairs are formed and some

become normal electrons, while Cooper pairs will not scatter, but
normal electrons will scatter, there fore   0.

- At T = Tc, all electrons are normal electrons. No Cooper pairs are

formed and so scattering will be there for all normal electrons and
hence  will be large.
10. Coherence Length
The distance up to which the motion of Cooper pairs remain correlated
to give superconductivity is known as coherence length ().

Since the electron states responsible for superconductivity lie within

kBTc of the Fermi surface, by uncertainty principle

E  (k BTc )    
k BTc
If velocity of electrons at Fermi surface is vF, the wave function must
extend over a distance  = vF, Thus,
v F

k BTc

v F (  10 -6
m)

2
  Energy gap vF  Fermi velocity
gap parameter 2 0  3.5k B Tc at 0K
 11. Flux Quantization
The persistent current in a superconductor can be accounted for through
the application of quantum law, according to which the persistent current
in a superconducting ring is a consequence of the quantization of the
electronic states. As a consequence of which the flux in a closed
superconducting loop is also quantized.

Free electron wave function is given as


  Ae k .r

Magnetic flux within the

superconducting loop is quantized and
is given as
n
 
2e

 2.07 x10 15 weber
2e
Flux Compression

Self study: Critical Current

The minimum current that can be passed in a sample without destroying
its superconductivity is called critical current Ic.
12. Josephson effect in superconductors:

Consider two normal metals (N) separated by an insulator junction.

N I N
Al Al
If thickness of the junction >> 100 Å, no conduction electron will
pass through this junction from metal 1 to metal 2. But,

If thickness of the junction  10 Å, then electron from metal 1 will

start tunneling through the insulator to the metal 2. This is called
quantum tunneling.

I I NN

V
If one metal is changed by a superconductor then V-I characteristic
changes.

T  0K
I
I NN
S I N
I NS

V

e

This is known as Giever Tunneling.

If both metals are replaced by superconductors, the

T  0K

I
S1 I S2 I NN I SS
Fig.: Characteristic
curve of S-I-S

V1 V2 V
Even without application of any potential Cooper pairs from one
superconducting materials may tunnel through the insulating
junction to the other superconducting materials.
1   2
V1 
e
1 and 2 are the energy gap for first and
1   2
V2  second superconductors respectively.
e
 S1 I S2
Let us define a system consisting of an ensemble of Cooper pairs
by a wave function
   ( r ) e i ( r )
Where (r) represents phase of the Cooper pairs, and
2
n   (r )

is density of Cooper pairs.

There is tendency of Cooper pairs in material 1 to equalize phase
of Cooper pairs in material B and therefore they move from
material 1 to 2 and give rise to current even without application of
any external voltage.
I  I 0 sin r DC Josephson effect

  1   2 Phase difference
Suppose we apply an external potential V, Cooper pairs may
absorb or emit energy in quantum units of 2 eV.
2eV
  0  t

 0  (1   2 ) when V  0
Due to this phase change
d 2eV

dt 

The current oscillates with a frequency 2eV


This is AC Josephson effect
10. High Tc superconductors
YBa2Cu3O7 90K

Fullerenes: C60 compounds with alkali atom mixture.

11. Applications

1. Superconducting magnets.
2. Superconducting power transmission.