Soil Characteristics & Analysis

Soil properties, soil classification, soils of India.

Soil use and Management:

A) Soil survey and field mapping

B) land capability classifications

(a)Soil evaluation and land-use planning.

(b)Soil and water conservation.

(c) Soil fertility and plant nutrition.

(d) Soil degradation control, remedial actions and reclamation

techniques, Role of remote sensing in soil mapping
SOIL PROPERTIES,
CLASSIFICATION,
PROFILE
AND
SOILS OF INDIA
We know more about the movement of celestial
bodies than about the soil underfoot.
- Leonardo da Vinci
 Processes of Soil Development

Combined effects of:

• Additions to ground surface
• Chemical transformations
• Vertical transfers
• Removals from soil
 CONSTITUTION
 Essential constituents of soil are
1.Solid particles - Inorganic matter- rocks and minerals
Organic matter- roots and remains of
life
2.liquid particles - Water
3.Air

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
COLOUR, TEXTURE, STRUCTURE, DENSITY

 Colour- An important property for classifying soil -

Colour of the soil depends upon the mineral composition

a. Red Soil - due to presence of iron content

b. Yellow soil - due to presence of iron oxide
c. Grey Soil - Absence of the above
d. Black soil - Presence of humus (decayed material)
contd
Texture
Refers to size of mineral particles in soil.
Particles grouped into three main classes:
1.SAND
2.SILT
3.CLAY.
Clay is the most important type of mineral particle.

Despite small size, they have very large surface area relative to
their volume.

Large surface is highly reactive and has ability to attract and hold
positively charged nutrient ions.

These nutrients are available to plant roots for nutrition.

Clay particles are also somewhat flexible and plastic because of

their lattice-like design.

This feature allows clay particles to absorb water and other

substances into their structure.
STRUCTURE
 Arrangement of soil particles

 1. Granular-If the size is uniform and spherical

2. Platy- particles are flattened or oblate
3.Blocky- Irregular shape with sharp corners and edges
Others Prismatic, Columnar, and Laminar

This property is influenced by Climate, Organic activity, Temp

DENSITY
 Weight per unit volume(gm/cm3)

Depends on structure, mineral composition

1.Particle Density (PD)- Wt. of soil solids/Vol. of Soil solids

2.Bulk Density (BD)- Wt. of soil solids/Vol. of Soil solids +Vol. of Air
 Type of
Size Range (Dia)
Mineral Particle

SAND 2.0 - 0.06 mm

SILT 0.06 - 0.002 mm

CLAY < 0.002 mm

 Classification of soil by feeling

Ball formation from slightly

Soil Texture Feel of soil Stickiness of Soil Wire formation of soil
soil moisture
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES

1.Void Ratio (e) - Ratio between Volume of voids(Vv) and Volume of

solid(Vs) particles in a given soil mass
e= Vv/Vs

Porosity (n) = [Vv/V *100] (V= Total Volume)

2. Permeability (k) –Capacity of soil to transmit water

Darcy’s Law is the basis of permeability of soil
Coefficient of Soil is influenced by Size, Shape and Arrangement
Sand – 1 to 0.1
Silt - 0.1 to 0.01
Clay- 0.01 to 0.001
Permeability class is very rapid >10 inches /hour
very slow <0.051 inches /hour

3.Shearing Strength – Resistance of soil to shearing forces

a. Frictional resistance between soil components
b. Degree of cohesion and adhesion between soil particles
c. Textural arrangement of solid particles
4.Soil Compressibility

a. Expulsion of air and/water from within voids

b. Collapse of solid particles by closure of voids
c. Deformation of solid particles

5.Bearing Capacity

a. Capacity of a soil to withstand building loads without

undergoing excessive settlement or shear failure

b. This is essential for any construction activity

c. Major construction activity like multi storied building (msb)

elaborate test are carried out to arrive at safe values of
allowable bearing capacity
Important/significant foundation soil physical
properties
Color
Redoximorphic features
Texture
Structure
Consistence
Coarse fragments
Reaction
14
 Important/significant foundation of soil

•Color – Not an influence, but an indicator and diagnostic resource

•Texture – composition (sand, silt, clay), feel, classification

(triangle) – micropores

•Structure – how particles are aggregated, bound together –

macropores

•Consistence – how soil holds together, feels, can be worked when

wet; assessing texture

•Coarse fragments – Rocks don’t hold water

•Soil reaction – Acid or base, leached or not leached

saturated or not saturated
• Color reflects physical, chemical and/or biological
composition and processes
• Dark brown-black = organic matter
• Bright-light = leached or bleached zones
• Subsoil color reflects parent material
• Subsoil color reflects redox status
oxidation = aerated
reduction = anaerobic, lacking oxygen
Carbonates, sulfates, chlorides affect color
Mottles, speckles, blotches – alternating wet and dry
conditions.
 Soil color as a diagnostic tool

Color reflects the parent material, the soil formation process,

and the hydraulic properties of the soil

• There are two ways to ‘look at’ soil color

1) A diagnostic tool – what happened!
2) A characterization/classification tool – what will happen!

1 2 3 4 5
 18
1 2
 19
3 4
 Soil Color
Coloring agents in the soil
Organic matter
Iron (Fe):primary coloring
agent in the subsoil
Manganese (Mn) is common
in some soils
Matrix color
Mottling
Redoximorphic features
Effect/expression of
darkens the soil
orange brown colors associated with
well drained soils are the result of Fe
oxide stains coating individual
particles.
very dark black or purplish black
color
dominant color in the soil
spots or blotches of color in the soil
that differ from the matrix color
mottles that relate to aeration,
drainage, and alterations between
aerobic and anaerobic of the soil
 mottles that relate to the aeration and drainage status of
Redoximorphic features the soil, and alterations between aerobic and anaerobic
conditions of the soil

21
Alisol – Poorly drained silty clay loam derived from
poorly drained clay loam soil due to dense Alluvial deposits on a modern-day flood plain
sub-surface horizon rich in clay and aluminum
Deep, poorly drained fine sandy loam formed
in sandy marine deposits, flood-plains and Moderately well drained, slow permeability,
depressions. Shallow water table deep to water table. Smectite clay; High
shrink-swell properties
 Soil colors associated with soil attributes.

Soil
Soil color Environmental conditions
attributes
Brown to low temperature, high annual precipitation
accumulation of
black amounts, soils high in soil moisture, and/or
organic matter
(surface litter from coniferous trees favor an
(OM), humus
horizon) accumulation of OM

Accumulation of
Black
manganese
(subsurface do
Parent material
horizon)
(e.g. basalt)

In environments where precipitation >

Bright-light- evapotranspiration there is leaching of
Elluvial horizon
nearly sequioxides, carbonates, and silicate clays.
(E horizon)
white The elluviated horizon consists mainly of
silica
Brown to black (surface
horizon); surface well-
drained, good aeration.
Darker vertical soil
deposits are remnants
of burrowing animals.

The technical term is

krotovina (crotovina):
an animal burrow that
has been filled with
organic or mineral
material from another
soil horizon.
Reddish brown subsoil,
suggesting good
drainage, aeration.
Note the buried A
horizon, with
additional subsoil
material above –
suggesting colluvial
deposition or some
form of mass action in
recent past. Zone of
elluviation below the
buried A horizon
Bright-light; eluvial zone below
the relatively shallow organic
horizon near surface; the light-
colored soils, the abundance
of red and yellow suggest a well-
drained soil. Considering that
elluviation has also occurred, one
would conclude that this would
be a suitable site – good internal
drainage, appears to have good
water holding capacity.
Redox – reduction-oxidation status
• Reduction – oxygen is
depleted from the soil,
the soil may be anaerobic,
iron and manganese
chemistry change,
resulting in color changes.
• Mottles/Gleying
• Oxidation – oxygen is
present in the soil, the soil
is aerobic, leaching is
likely occurring, light color
of soil.
Yellow to Fe (oxidized Well-aerated soils
3+

reddish iron)

Poorly drained soils (e.g.

subsurface layer with a
high bulk density causes
Gray,
Fe (reduced waterlogging, or a very fine
bluish-
2+

iron) textured soil where

green
permeability is very low),
anaerobic environmental
conditions
In arid or subhumid
environments where the
White to Accumulation evapotranspiration >
gray of salts precipitation there is an
upward movement of water
and soluble salts in the soil

Parent
White to
material: -
gray
marl, quartz

29
 An explanation of the Munsell color wheel and Munsell color charts

Hue: It is the dominant spectral

color, i.e., whether the hue is pure
color such as yellow, red, green, or a
mixture of pure colors.

Value: It describes the degree of

lightness or brightness of the hue
reflected in the property of the gray
color that is being added to the hue.

Chroma: It is the amount of a

particular hue added to a gray or
the relative purity of the hue.

In a Munsell notation, the color is written in the order hue-value-chroma.

The colour “5YR 4/3” is an example of a Munsell notation, where 5YR is the hue,
4 is the value, and 3 is the chroma.
 Standardizing Color – the Munsell Color Chart
• Munsell Color System
• Hue refers to dominant
wavelength of light (color) (red,
yellow, green, etc.).
• Value refers to lightness and
darkness of a color in relation to
a neutral gray scale.
• Chroma is relative purity or
strength of Hue.
• Notation
32
Hue = 5YR
Value = 2.5 – 8
Chroma = 1-8

So, for example: a soil

horizon with a Munsell color
description of 5YR 5/4 =

33
Components of the Soil Profile

A soil horizon makes up a distinct layer of soil

 Horizon runs roughly parallel to soil surface and has different

properties and characteristics than adjacent layers above and below

Vertical section of soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile
extends from soil surface to parent rock material.

 Regolith includes all of weathered material within the profile. The

regolith has two components: the solum and saprolite.

 The solum includes upper horizons with most weathered portion of

profile.

The saprolite is the least weathered portion that lies directly above
solid, consolidated bedrock but beneath the regolith.
Parent material (bedrock) undergoes weathering to become regolith
(Soil + Saprolite).
Soil is a mixture of mineral and organic matter lacking any inherited rock
structure.

Solum
Saprolite is weathered rock that retains remnant rock structure.

Saprolite
Saprolite
 Soil profile is an important tool in nutrient management.

 Examining a soil profile, throws light into soil fertility.

 As soil weathers and/or organic matter decomposes, profile of

soil changes.

 For instance, a highly weathered, infertile soil usually contains a

light-colored layer in the subsurface soil from which nutrients
have leached away.

 On the other hand, a highly fertile soil often has a deep surface
layer that contains high amounts of organic matter.

 With clues provided by soil profile, we can begin to predict how a

soil will perform under certain nutrient management conditions.
 SOIL PROFILE

Aoo Undecomposed organic debris

Ao Partly decomposed organic debris

A1 Mixture of organic and mineral matter partial

eluviations of clay and sesquioxides

A2 Light coloured horizon of maximum eluviations of clay

and sesquioxides
A3 Transitional to B but more like A than B
B1 Transitional to A but more like B than A
Horizon of Maximum accumulation of clay and
B2
sesquioxides
B3 Transitional to C
Bca Carbonate or sulphate accumulation in B horizon
Cca Carbonate or sulphate accumulation in C horizon
C Parental material
Master Horizons

There are 5 master horizons in soil profile. Not all soil profiles contain all 5
horizons; and so, soil profiles differ from one location to another.
5 master horizons are represented by the letters: O, A, E, B, and C.

O: O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at

various stages of decomposition. It is most prominent in forested areas
where there is accumulation of debris fallen from trees.

A: A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt,

and clay) and with appreciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon is
predominantly surface layer of many soils in grasslands and agricultural
lands.
E: E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached.
Leaching is the process in which soluble nutrients are lost from soil due
to precipitation or irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color.

B: B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the

layer(s) above. It is a site of deposition of certain minerals that have
leached from the layer(s) above.

C: C horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon.

Also known as the saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose parent material.
 Chemical Properties of Soil

1.pH (Hydrogen ion concentration)

2.Salinity (EC)

3.Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

4.Organic matter

5.C:N ratio (Carbon to Nitrogen)

 Soils have particular Properties
that can be categorised into two groups
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
*Structure *Acidity(pH)

*Texture *Nutrient content

*Bulk density *Cation exchange capacity

*Porosity *Salinity

*Permeability

*Shear strength

*Soil profile

*Colour
pH( Hydrogen Ion concentration)
 Cation-Exchange Capacity(CEC)

A cation is a positively charged ion.

Most nutrients are cations: Ca2+,Mg2+,K+,NH4+,Zn2+,Cu2+, and

Mn2+.

Cations are in dynamic equilibrium

Adsorbed on the surface of clay and organic matter held by Soil.

CEC is dependent upon

1.Amount of organic matter
2.Clay in soils and
3.Types of clay.

In general, higher the clay content the higher CEC.

Some plant nutrients and metals exist as positively charged ions, or
“cations”, in soils

Common cations in soils are (H+), (Al+3), (Ca+2), (Mg+2), (K+).

Most heavy metals also exist as cations in the soils

Clay and organic matter particles are predominantly negatively charged

(anions), and have the ability to hold cations from being “leached” or
washed away.

Adsorbed cations are subject to replacement by other cations in a rapid,

reversible process called “cation exchange”.
 Soil salinity
•Potential problem in irrigated soils is due to
1.High evaporation rates and
2.low annual rainfall leaving salts to accumulate.

•Salts can come from irrigation water, fertilizers, composts, and manure.

•Salts can be leached by slowly applying excess water (dilution).

 Three inches removes about 50% of the soluble salts.
 Five inches removes about 90%.
Conductivity
Interpretation
(mmho/cm)
Severe accumulation of salts. May restrict growth of
4 or above
many vegetables and ornamental Plants.
Moderate accumulation of salts. Will not restrict plant
2 to 4
growth, but may require more frequent irrigation.

less than 2 Low salt accumulation and not affect Plants.

Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
Beneficial impacts of SOM on soil properties:

Physical - Stabilizes soil structure, improves water holding characteristics,

lowers bulk density, dark color may alter thermal properties

Chemical - Higher SOM, acts as pH buffer, ties up metals

Biological - Supplies energy and body-building constituents for soil

organisms, increases microbial populations and their activities, source and
sink for nutrients, ecosystem resilience, affects soil enzymes

Each year, about 1 to 4% of nutrients in soil organic matter are released

through microbial transformations to become available to plants.

Release is highest under warm, moist conditions and slowest in cool dry
climates.

Microorganisms are the driving force for nutrient release to plants.

Importance of Soil Organisms

Responsible for cycling of C, N and other nutrients

Enhance soil structure

Relocate and decompose organic materials

Maintain soil quality and health

Increase soil aeration and penetrability

Involved in disease transmission and control

C:N (carbon to nitrogen) ratios
Low C:N ratios (<25:1)
indicative of mineralization and rapid rates of decomposition

High C:N ratios (>25:1)

indicate immobilization and slower decomposition rates

Low C:N materials (high N values)

Undiluted manure and blood meal, grass clippings, vegetable wastes

Intermediate C:N materials

Most composts, leaf mulches, crop residues

High C:N materials

Straw, bark, wood chips, sawdust, paper, cornstalks, foliage
 Essential Nutrients for Soils

Primary Nutrients Micro Nutrients

Nitrogen (N) Zinc (Zn)

Phosphorus (P) Iron (Fe)
Potassium (K) Copper (Cu)
Manganese (Mn)
Boron (B)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Secondary Nutrients Chlorine (Cl)
Sulfur (S)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Nutrient Availability
 Soil Classification Systems

Classification systems are a way to identify

soils in a consistent unbiased manner based
on physically measured properties.
 Soil Classification Systems

• AASHTO (American Association of State Highways Transport organisation)

• Unified Soil
• USDA (United States Dept.of Agri)

• FAA (Federal Aviation Administration)

• ICAR/AILUSS (Indian Council for Agri Research/All India Land use and Soil Survey)
Soil Classification System
 Need for Simple Classification

• Usually soil on site has to be used.

Soils differ from other engineering materials like
one has little control over their properties

• Extent and properties of the soil have to be

determined

• Cheap and simple tests are required to give an

indication of engineering properties, e.g. stiffness,
strength, for preliminary design

The classification must use core samples obtained from the

ground.
This information is often supplemented by in-situ tests such as
cone penetration tests.
 Classification based on Particle Size

• Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy

– e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals

• Broad Classification

– Coarse grained soils

• sands, gravels - visible to naked eye

– Fine grained soils

• silts, clays, organic soils
 Procedure for grain size determination
• Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm

• Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

– Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

A hydrometer is an instrument which is used to measure the relative density of a liquid

 Soil Classification

Boulder
 GRAIN SIZE

Gravel Sand Silt Clay

>256-2 mm 2- 0.062 mm 0.062-0.004 mm <0.004 mm

Boulder: >256mm

Cobble: 64-256 mm

Pebble: 4-64 mm

Granule: 2-4mm
Fine gravel
Degree of roundness helps in knowing the distance of transportation

•Angular clasts- short distance transport from the source

•Rounded clasts- long distance transport

Soil Orders
General level of classification in the USDA system of Soil Taxonomy is the
Soil Order.
All soils in the world can be assigned to one of just 12 orders.

Soil orders are frequently defined by a single dominant characteristic

affecting soils in that location, e.g., the prevalent vegetation (Alfisols,
Mollisols), the type of parent material (Andisols, Vertisols), or the climate
variables such as lack of precipitation (Aridisols) or the presence of
permafrost (Gelisols).

Also significant in several soil orders is the amount of physical and

chemical weathering present (Oxisols, Ultisols), and/or the relative amount
of Soil Profile Development that has taken place (Entisols).

12 soil orders:
Entisols, Inceptisols, Andisols, Mollisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, Ultisols,
Oxisols, Gelisols, Histosols, Aridisols, and Vertisols.
Soil Order
The 12 soil orders are listed below in the sequence in which they
key out in Soil Taxonomy.

Soil series as established by the National Cooperative Soil Survey of

the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Natural Resources Conservation Service are a level of classification in
the USDA Soil Taxonomy classification system hierarchy.

The actual object of classification is the so-called soil individual, or

pedon

A soil series name generally is derived from a town or landmark in or

near the area where the soil series was first recognized

Depending on the context, a soil series may be defined as either a taxonomic unit or a
mapping unit
Global distribution of soil types of the USDA soil taxonomy system

•Alfisols — moderately weathered, form under boreal or broadleaf

forests, rich in iron and aluminum
•Andisols — form in volcanic ash and defined as containing high
proportions of glass and amorphous colloidal materials,

including allophane, imogolite and ferrihydrite

•Aridisols — (from Latin aridus-“dry”) form in an arid or semiarid climate
•Entisols — do not show any "significant" soil profile development.
Minimal soil horizons.
•Gelisols — soils of very cold climates which are defined as containing
permafrost within two meters of the soil surface
•Histosols — consist primarily of organic materials
•Inceptisols — form quickly through alteration of parent material
•Mollisols — form in semiarid to semi humid areas, typically under a
grassland cover
•Oxisols — best known for their occurrence in tropical rain forest
•Spodosols — typical soils of coniferous or boreal forests
•Ultisols — commonly known as red clay soils
•Vertisols — high content of expansive clay
Order: Entisols
Suborder: Fluvents
Great Group: Torrifluvents
Subgroup: Typic Torrifluvents
Family: Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, calcareous, Typic Torrifluvents
Series: Jocity, Youngston.

Another Example

Order: Alfisols
Suborder: Xeralfs
Great Group: Durixeralfs
Subgroup: Abruptic Durixeralfs
Family: Fine, Mixed, Active, thermic Abruptic Durixeralfs
Series: San Joaquin (soil)
 Soil Orders and General Descriptions
Type Description Type Description

Entisols Little, if any horizon Inceptisols Beginning of horizon

development development

Aridisols Soils located in arid Mollisols Soft, grassland soils

climates

Alfisols Deciduous forest soils Spodosols Acidic, coniferous

forest soils

Ultisols Extensively weathered Oxisols Extremely weathered,

soils tropical soils
Gelisols Soils containing Histosols Soils formed in
permafrost organic material

Andisols Soil formed in volcanic Vertisols Shrinking and swelling

material clay soils
Entisols

Diverse group of soils with one thing in common, little profile (horizon)
development.

Includes soils of unstable environments, such as floodplains, sand dunes,

or those found on steep slopes.

Entisols are commonly found at the site of recently deposited materials

(e.g., alluvium), or in parent materials resistant to weathering (e.g.
sand).

Entisol soils also occur in areas where a very dry or cold climate limits
soil profile development.

Productivity potential of Entisols varies widely, from very productive

alluvial soils found on floodplains, to low fertility/productivity soils found
on steep slopes or in sandy areas.
Inceptisols

Soils are in the beginning stages of soil profile development.

The differences between horizons are just beginning to appear.

Some color changes may be evident between the emerging horizons,

and the beginnings of a B horizon may be seen with the accumulation of
small amounts of clay, salts, and organic material.

These soils show more profile development than Entisols, but have not
developed the horizons or properties that characterize other soil orders.

Inceptisols are commonly found throughout the world, and are

prominent in mountainous regions.

The natural productivity of these soils varies widely, and is dependent

upon clay and organic matter content, and other edaphic (plant-related)
factors.
Aridisols
Dry soils with CaCO3 (lime) accumulations, common in desert regions.
The extent of Aridisol occurrence throughout the world is widespread,
second in total ice-free land area only to the Entisols.

Extensive areas of Aridisols occur in the major deserts of the world, as

well as in Southwestern North America , Australia , and many Middle
Eastern locations. Aridisols are commonly light in color, and low in
organic matter content. Lime and salt accumulations are common in the
subsurface horizons.

Some Aridisols have an argillic (clay accumulation) B horizon, likely

formed during a period with a wetter climate. Water deficiency is the
dominant characteristic of Aridisols with adequate moisture for plant
growth present for no more than 90 days at a time.

Crops cannot be grown in these soils without irrigation. Productivity of

Aridisols is generally low, and there is potential for land degradation due
to overgrazing by livestock. If irrigation water is available, Aridisols can
be made productive through use of fertilizers and proper management.
Mollisols

Mollisol order takes its name from the Latin word mollis, meaning soft.

These mineral soils have developed on grasslands, a vegetation that has

extensive fibrous root systems.

Topsoil of Mollisols is characteristically dark and rich with organic matter,

giving it a lot of natural fertility.

These soils are typically well saturated with basic cations (Ca 2+, Mg2+, Na+,
and K+) that are essential plant nutrients.

These characteristics of Mollisols place them among the most fertile soils
found on Earth.
Alfisols

Alfisols are found in cool to hot humid areas, and in semiarid tropics;
formed mostly under forest vegetation, but also under grass savanna.

Extensivly found in Mississippi and Ohio River valleys, USA, through

Central and Northern Europe into Russia, in South-central South America.

Alfisols show extensive profile development, with distinct argillic (clay)

accumulations in subsoil.

Extensive leaching produces a light-colored E horizon below topsoil.

Generally fertile and productive, these soils typically have a high

concentration of nutrient cations (Ca, Mg, K, and Na) and form in regions
with sufficient moisture for plants for at least part of the year.

Natural fertility and productive capacity is considered to be greater than

that of Ultisols, but less than that of Mollisols.
Spodosols

Spodosols commonly form in sandy parent materials under coniferous forest

vegetation. As a consequence of their coarse texture, they have a high leaching
potential.

Spodosols are characterized by high acidity, and have a subsoil accumulation of

organic matter, along with aluminum and iron oxides, called a spodic horizon.

Typically low in natural fertility (basic cations, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+) and high in soil
acidity (H+, Al3+), these soils require extensive inputs of lime and fertilizers to be
agriculturally productive.

Spodosols are most commonly associated with a cool and wet climate, but also
occur in warmer climes such as in Florida, USA .

Large areas of Spodosol are found in northern Europe, Russia, and northeastern
North America .
Ultisols

Ultisols are intensely weathered soils of warm and humid climates.

They are typically formed on older geologic locations in parent material that is
already extensively weathered.

Ultisols have accumulated clay minerals in the B horizon. While generally low in
natural fertility (basic cations, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+) and high in soil acidity (H+,
Al3+) the clay content of Ultisols gives them a nutrient retention capacity greater
than that of Oxisols, but less than Alfisols or Mollisols.

Ultisol soils can be agriculturally productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers.

Large areas of Ultisol are found in the southeastern USA, China, Indonesia,
South America, and equatorial regions of Africa.
Oxisols

Oxisols are the most weathered of the 12 soil orders in the USDA soil
classification system.

They are composed of the most highly weathered tropical and subtropical
soils, and are formed in hot, humid climates that receive a lot of rainfall.

Oxisols are located primarily in equatorial regions.

These soils are extensively leached, and clay size particles are dominated
by oxides of iron and aluminum, which are low in natural fertility (Ca 2+,
Mg2+, K+) and high in soil acidity (H+, Al3+).

Oxisols are typically physically stable, with low shrink-swell properties

and good erosion resistance, these soils require extensive inputs of lime
and fertilizers to be agriculturally productive
Andisols

Soils form in volcanic ash and cinders near or downwind from volcanic
activity.

Generally lacking in development, they are not extensively weathered,

forming in deposits from geologically recent events.

Usually of high natural fertility, they tend to accumulate organic matter

readily and are of a ‘light’ nature (low bulk density) that is easily tilled.

These soils generally have a high productivity potential

Gelisols

Gelisols are soils with permafrost within 2 meters of the surface. These
soils generally have limited profile development.

Most of the soil forming processes in these soils occur near the surface,
sometimes resulting in significant accumulation of organic matter.

Large areas of this soil occur in the Northern regions of Russia, Canada,
and Alaska.

These areas become boggy wetlands in the summer, and support large
numbers of migratory birds and grazing mammals.

The permafrost of Gelisols tends to become unstable (melt) if disturbed,

leading to a waterlogged soil condition that poses problems for
engineering uses.
Histosols

Histosols are soils without permafrost that are predominately composed

of organic materials in various stages of decomposition.

They generally consist of at least half organic materials (by volume).

They are usually saturated with water which creates anaerobic conditions
and causes organic matter accumulation at rates faster than that of
decomposition.

Little soil profile development is present, due to their saturated and

anaerobic condition, however layering of organic materials is common.

Histosols can form in wetland areas of any climate where plants can grow
such as bogs, marshes, and swamps, but are most commonly formed in
cool climates
Vertisols
Vertisols are soils with a high content of clay minerals that shrink and
swell as they change water content.

Clay minerals adsorb water and increase in volume (swell) when wet and
then shrink as they dry, forming large, deep cracks.

Surface materials fall into these cracks and are incorporated into lower
horizons when the soil becomes wet again.

As this process is repeated, soil experiences a mixing of surface materials

into the subsoil that promotes a more uniform soil profile.

Vertisols are usually very dark in color, with widely variable organic
matter content (1 – 6%).

Typically form in Ca and Mg rich materials such as limestone, basalt, or in

areas of topographic depressions that collect these elements leached
from uplands.

Vertisols are most commonly formed in warm, subhumid or semi-arid

climates, where natural vegetation is predominantly grass, savanna,
open forest, or desert shrub found in Northeastern Africa, India, and
Australia , with smaller areas scattered worldwide.
SOILS
OF
INDIA
I. Introduction

Soils are natural bodies in which plants grow and they provide
the starting point for successful agriculture.

To ensure optimum agricultural production first it is imperative

to know the basic facts about our soil and then its management
with judicious use of fertilizer to achieve high productivity

 We know that maximum population in India is depend on

agriculture and is the base of agriculture.

 Nature of soil differs from area to area and so different types of

soils that are occurring throughout the country need a detailed
description.
II.Geographical Location
 India has a geographical area of 327.4 million hectares.

 Sub-continent lies between 8o – 37o north latitude and 69o- 93o

east longitude.

 Northern boundary of country has a chain of Himalayas

extending all along northern side, bordering Pakistan on west
and Burma on east.

 Remaining south, east and west borders are surrounded by

Indian
Ocean, Bay of Bengal' and Arabian sea respectively.
III. Climate

Climate of India is of monsoon type.

Two distinct periods of rainfall in a year, viz. the south-west monsoon

during the months of June-September and the northeast monsoon during
the winter months.

Climate is influenced by the Himalayan mountains as well as the Indian

ocean, the Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal.

Himalayas obstruct the path of entry of cold winds from the north,
giving a continental type of climate.

Seas produce a hot monsoonal type of tropical climate.

 Rainfall is controlled by topography as the high mountains lying across

the path of the monsoon winds helps to precipitate their moisture as rain
on the windward side.
Therefore, the western Ghats and Assam ranges receive high rainfall
of about more than 200 mm per annum.

 As the south-west monsoon is deflected towards upper India by the

Himalayas, the Gangetic plains and Punjab and Haryana receive good
rainfall.

Moisture bearing winds from Arabian sea pass unobstructed over

Rajasthan as the Aravallies lie along their way and this is the cause for
scanty rainfall in Rajasthan (around 25 mm/annum)

 South-west monsoon wind enters India, both from the Arabian sea and
the Bay of Bengal.

 Arabian sea branch is more important for South India.

 Bay of Bengal branch benefits the east coast and the northern oceans.

 South-west monsoon is followed by the north-east monsoon towards

the end of September.
 Temperature is equally variable like rainfall.

 Temperature rises continually during summer months (March to June).

Air temperature rises to about 45°C in north and north-western plains.

High altitudes in the Himalayas and Nilgiris have low temperature.

The mean annual temperature in Indo-Gangetic plains is around 24°C

Climate thus varies from extreme aridity to high humidity and from
scanty to torrential rainfall.

Area between latitudes 20o north and 20o south been considered tropical
IV. Physiography
The major physiographic divisions of our country .

1.The Northern mountains

 Western Himalayas (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
regions), Eastern Himalayas and Assam-Burma ranges
 Extend all along northern boundary of the country.
 Stretch out in a series of parallel or occassional convergent chains,
separated by valleys or extensive platforms.
2.The great plains
 Indus plains (Rajasthan and Punjab plains), Ganga plains and
Brahmaputra Valley.
 Occur between the northern mountains and the peninsula.
3.The Peninsula
Consists of central uplands, Deccan plateau (Satpura range),
Maharashtra plateau, Karnataka plateau, Telangana plateau), eastern
plateau (Bhagelkhand plateau, Chhotanagpur plateau, Garhjat hills,
Mahanadi basin, Dandakaranya upland), western hills (North south and
central Sahyadri and Nilgiris), eastern hills (Eastern ghats, Tamilnadu
upland) and coastal plains (west and east coastal plains).
4.The islands
Small in land area, consist of Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal islands.
V. Vegetation
Natural vegetation of India has been classified into five major groups

1.Tropical forests,
2.Temperate forests,
3.sub-tropical forests and sub alpine forests,
4.Desert
5.Mangroves
Forests occupy about 20 percent of total geographical area of the country.

1.Tropical forests
Dry deciduous forests occupy more area almost along entire Indian
peninsula (29.7 m.ha)

followed by moist deciduous forests, (22.4 m. ha), which are present in

the foot hills of Himalayas, east side of Western Ghats, Chhotanagpur and
Khasi hills.

Western side of western Ghats, upper Assam and Andamans are occupied
by ever-green and semi-evergreen forests (6.4 m.ha) and along the coast,
littoral and swamp forests are present.

Rajasthan and adjoining areas have thorny tropical forests (5.2 m. ha)
while Karnatic coast have dry ever-green forests (0.1 m.ha).
2.Sub-tropical forests
These forests are mostly pine forests occupying an area of 3.7 m.ha in
central and western Himalayas, and broad- leaved hill forests (0.3 m.ha)
are in the lower Himalayas.

3.Temperate forests
Moist temperate forests are present in central and western Himalayas
(2.7 m.ha) where as eastern Himalayas have wet temperate forests (1.6
m.ha). Inner range of Himalayas are occupied by dry temperate forests
(0.2 m.ha).

4.Sub-alpine forests
Occupy an area of 1.8 m.ha and are present in the Himalayas above 3000
mts elevation.
An innumerable number of species are present in these forests from
which multipurpose products are produced.

The major forest products are wood, fibre, bamboos, essential oils, oil
seeds, tans and dyes, gums and resins, drugs, spices, insecticides, edible
products, lac, fodder etc.
Seasons
There are two main cropping seasons, namely

Kharif (April–September) and Rabi (October–March).

Major kharif crops are rice, sorghum, pearl millet, maize, cotton,
sugar cane, soybean and groundnut,

Major Rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, rapeseed and
mustard.

With its good range of climates and soils, India has a good
potential for growing a wide range of horticultural crops such as
fruits, vegetables, potato, tropical tuber crops, mushrooms,
ornamental crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, spices and
plantation crops.

Food grain (cereals and pulses) crops dominate cropping pattern

and account for about 60 percent of total gross cropped area
VI. Major Soil Groups in India

Volcker (1893) and Reathee

(1898), classified the Indian
soils into 4 groups

1.Indo-gangetic alluvium,
2.Black cotton,
3.Red and
4.Laterite soils.

Later in 1940s, Indian

Agricultural Research Institute
had set-up a soil-survey
committee which identified
major soil groups in our
country that are shown in
Figure
ALLUVIAL SOILS (Fluvisols)
Most important and widespread category.
Covers 40% of the land area.
In fact entire Northern Plains are made up of these soils.
Brought down and deposited by three great Himalayan rivers- Sutlej,
Ganga and Brahmaputra- and their tributaries.
Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan they extend into plains of
Gujarat.
Common in eastern coastal plains and in deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri.

REGUR SOILS (Black Soils) (Vertisols)

Black in colour and are also known as black soils.
Ideal for growing cotton, and are also called cotton soils
Typical of Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over north-west Deccan
plateau and are made up of lava flows.
Cover plateaus of Mahrashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa and southern Madhya
Pradesh and extend eastwards along Godavari and Krishna Valleys.
RED SOILS (Acrisols)

Developed on old crystalline rocks under moderate to heavy rainfall

conditions.
 Deficient in phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous material.
Red soils cover eastern part of peninsular region comprising Chotanagpur
plateau, Orissa, eastern Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, the Nilgiris and
Tamil Nadu plateau.
Extend northwards in the west along Konkan coast of Maharashtra.

LATERITE SOILS (Ferralsols and Dystric Nitisols)

Result of intense leaching owing to heavy tropical rains.
Found in the east covering small parts of Tamil Nadu, Orissa and
Chotanagpur in the north and Meghalaya in the north-east.
 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has
divided Indian soils into eight major groups
Alluvial Soil in India

By far the largest and most important soil group of India.

Composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves.

Chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world.
Usually deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).

Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of
Narmada and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat, Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa,
Godavari in A.P and Cauvery in T.N.

Divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary)
alluvium
Black Soil in India

Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop.

These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava spread over
large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of
years ago.

Black due to compounds of iron and aluminum ( because of titaniferous

magnetite).

Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka,

AP, TN

Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing
cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.
They have high moisture retention level.

Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter

Red Soil in India

•They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline

rocks like granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such
as iron and magnesium.

•The term ‘red soil’ is due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the
materials of the soil.

•Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkand and Bundelkhand.

•Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in

potash.

• Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and
potatoes at higher elevations).
Laterite Soil in India

Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high

temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods.

The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of
siliceous matter and lime of the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron
and aluminum compounds is left behind.

Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, WB, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.
Poor in nitrogen and minerals.

Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and
millet cultivation if manured.
Forest and Mountain Soils (Cambisols and Luvisols)

•Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests.

•The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic

deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.

•In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins,
depressions and less steeply inclined slopes. Apart from the Himalayan
region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular
region.

•Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime
and needs fertilizers.

Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.

Arid and Desert Soils (Arenosols, Calcisols and Gypsisols)

A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining
areas of Punjab and Haryana lying between the Indus and the Aravallis
receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert
conditions.

This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.

The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial

soils.

Nitrogen is originally low but its deficiency is made up to some extent

by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates.

Thus the presence of phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils
wherever moisture is available.

Changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command

Area are a living example of the utility of the desert soils.
Saline and Alkaline Soils(Solonchaks and Solonetz)

•In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and

Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline soils.

•Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR, etc.

•Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals,
which percolates in the sub-soils of the plains.

•Accumulation of salts makes soil infertile and renders it unfit for

agriculture
Peaty and Marshy Soils (Histosols)

•Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large

amounts of organic matter in the soil.

•They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40%

of organic matter.

•Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala,

where it is called Kari.

•Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar,

coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP
 Distribution of Soils in India
Sl.No Soil groups Area (M.ha) Distribution in the states
1 Red loamy 21.3 AP, TN, KT, KR, MP, O, R
2 Red sandy 33.0 TN, KT, AP, B, WB
3 Laterite 13.0 TN, KR, KT, AP, GJ, O, M, G, A, WB, AN
4 Red & yellow 40.3 MP, O, B
5 Shallow black 3.1 M
6 Medium black 43.0 M, MP, GJ, AP, KT, R
7 Deep black 11.2 M, AP, KT, MP, GJ, R
8 Mixed red & black 16.2 KT, TN, M, MP, AP, B
9 Coastal alluvium 5.4 TN, KR, KT, AP, M, G, WB, AN
10 Coastal sands 0.45 O, TN, AP, PO
11 Deltaic alluvium 8.70 TN, AP, O, WB
12 Alluvial (Recent & old) 35.67 UP, P, B, WB, A, H, AP, GJ, JK, HR, MP, R, D
13 Alluvial (Calcareous) 1.3 UP, B
14 Calcareous sierozemic 4.5 P, H, R
15 Grey brown 10.1 GJ, R
16 Desert 18.2 R, G, H
17 Tarai 2.8 UP, B, WB, AN
18 Brown hill 8.1 UP, S, HP, GJ, JK, KR, P, WB
19 Sub montane 7.6 UP, JK, HP
20 Mountain meadow 5.9 JK
21 Saline and alkali 1.7 UP, H, P, M, KR, TN, GJ, R
22 Peaty 0.27 KR, WB
23 Skeletal 7.9 MP
24 Glaciers & eternal 2.9 UP, JK
snow
25 Others 24.9 -
Symbols for states- AN-Andaman & Nicobar islands; AP –Andhra Pradesh; A-Assam; B-Bihar; D-Delhi; G-Goa; GJ-Gujarat; H-Haryana; HP-Himachal Pradesh;
JK-Jammu & Kashmir; KT-Karnataka; KR-Kerala; MP-Madhya Pradesh; M-Maharashtra; O-Odhisa; PO-Pondicherry; P- Punjab; R-Rajasthan; TN- Tamil Nada;
UP-Uttar Pradesh; WB- West Bengal.