THE THYROID

GLAND
HORMONES:

1. T hyroxine (T4) – 93%

2. Triiodothyronine (T3) –
7%
Thyroid secretion is controlled primarily
by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),
secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

To form normal quantities of thyroxine,

50 mg of ingested iodine are required
each year or 1 mg per week.
STAGES IN FORMATION OF THYROID
HORMONES
1. IODIDE PUMP ( iodide trapping)
1. OXIDATION OF THE IODIDE ION – promoted by enzyme
peroxidase

2. IODINATION OF TYROSINE AND FORMATION OF

THYROID HORMONES – ORGANIFICATION – Iodinase enzyme
Monoiodotyrosine and diiodotyrosine
 4. COUPLING
Monoiodotyrosine + diiodotyrosine = T3
Diiodotyrosine + diiodotyrosine = T4

Release of T3 and T4 into circulating blood – Proteinase enzyme

Transport of T3 and T4 – combine with proteins

a.thyroxine – binding globulun
b.thyroxine – binding pre-albumin
c.albumin

T4 released to tissues every 6 days and T3 in one day

 PHYSIOLOGIC FUNCTIONS OF
THYROID HORMONES

1. Increase the Transcription of Large Number of Cells

a. most thyroxine secreted by the thyroid is converted to

triiodothyroinine

b.thyroid hormones activate nuclear receptors

2. Increase Cellular Metabolic Activity
a. thyroid hormone increase the number and activity of
mitochondria
b.thyroid hormone increase active transport of ions
through cell membrane

3. Effect on Growth – promotes growth and development

of the brain during fetal life and few years of postnatal life

4. Effect on Specific Bodily Metabolism

a. Stimulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism
b. Stimulation of Fat Metabolism
c. Increased Requirement for Vitamins
d. Increased Basal Metabolic Rate
e. Decreased Body Weight
f. Effect on Cardiovascular system

i. Increased Blood Flow and Cardiac Output

ii. Increased Heart Rate
iii. Increased Heart Strength
iv. Normal Arterial Pressure
g. Increased Respiration

h. Increased Gastrointestinal Motility – Diarrhea

i. Excitatory Effect on the Central Nervous System –

Muscle Tremors

j. Effect on Sleep – insomnia (difficult /inability to sleep)

k. Effect on Sexual Function
i. lack of thyroid hormone cause Menorrhagia
(excessive menstrual bleeding ) and
Polymenorrhea (frequent menstrual bleeding)
greatly decreased Libido

ii. Hyperthyroid woman – Oligomenorrhea

(greatly reduced bleeding and Amenorrhea
(absence)

iii. In men – lack of thyroid hormone

causes loss of libido ; great excess cause
impotence
DISEASES OF THE THYROID
1 Hyperthyroidism( Toxic Goiter , Thyrotoxicosis, Grave’s Disease)
Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism:
a. High State of Excitability
b.Intolerance to Heat
c. Increased Sweating
d. Mild to Extreme Weight Loss
e.Diarrhea
f.Nervousness of other Psychic disorders
g. Extreme Fatigue & Inability to Sleep
h. Tremor of the Hands
i. Exophthalmos – protrusion of the eyeball
2.Hypothyroidism – Symptoms opposite to that of hyperthyroidism

a. Endemic Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) – due to

dietary iodine deficiency
b. Constipation
c. Myxedema – bagginess under the eyes and swelling of
the face
d. Arteriosclerosis-
e. Somnolence
f. Increase in Weight
g.Decreased blood volume
h. Slow heart rate
i. Mental sluggishness
j. Depressed growth of hair and scaliness of the skin
k. Froglike husky voice
REGULATION OF THYROID HORMONE
SECRETION
1. TSH or Thyrotropin ( from the Anterior Pituitary Gland)

Increases Thyroid Secretion

Effects on the thyroid gland:
a. Increased proteolysis of the thyroglobulin
b. Increased activity of the iodide pump
c. Increased iodination of tyrosine
d. Increased size and increased secretory activity of the
thyroid cells
e. Increased number of thyroid cells
 TSH INCREASES ALL KNOWN
SECRETORY ACTIVITIES OF THE
THYROID GLAND CELLS

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate

Mediates the Stimulatory effect of TSH-
cAMP act as “second messenger” in many
target tissues
2. Anterior Pituitary Secretion of TSH is regulated by Thyrotropin
releasing Hormone from the Hypothalamus

- Activation of the phospholipase second messenger system

Stimuli that Affect Rate of Secretion of TRH and TSH:

a. Exposure to Cold – increases secretion

b. Emotional reactions- (Excitement and Anxiety) –

cause decrease in secretion of TSH
3. Feedback Effect of Thyroid Hormone to
Decrease Anterior
Pituitary Secretion of TSH
Increased thyroid hormone secretion decreases
secretion of TSH
 ANTITHYROID SUBSTANCES – drugs that
suppress thyroid secretion
1. Thiocyanate – decreases iodide trapping
2. Propylthiouracil – decreases thyroid hormone formation
Mechanism:
a. block the proxidase enzyme required for
iodination of tyrosine
b. block the coupling of two iodinated tyrosines
to form thyroxine and triiodothyronine

3. Iodides – in high concentratioin decreases thyroid activity

and thyroid gland size
- reduce the rate of iodide trapping
CRETINISM
Caused by extreme hypothyroidusm during
fetal life, infancy or childhood.

Characteristics:
a. Failure to grow
b. Mental retardation
c. Skeletal growth us characteristically more
inhibited than is soft tissue growth

- child is obese, stocky and short appearance

-tongue becomes large in relation to skeletal growth
CAUSES:

1. Congenital Cretinism – results from congenital

lack of a thyroid gland – failure of thyroid gland
to produce thyroid hormone

2. Endemic Cretinism – iodine lack in the diet