m vlsi the process of creating INTEGRATED circuits by packing

many transistors on a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s

when complex SEMICONDUCTER & COMMUNICATION
technologies were being developed. The microprocessor is a
VLSI device.
m early chips held two transistors. Subsequent advancement
yielded more systems integrated over time for specific
functions. The first ic as many as ten diodes, transistors,
resistors and capacitors, making it possible to fabricate one
or more logic gates on a single device. Now known as
small-scale integration (SSI), improvements in technique
led to devices with Ú
 of logic gates, known (MSI).
Further improvements led to (LSI), i.e. systems with at
least a thousand logic gates. Current technology has moved
far past this mark and today's microprocessors have many
millions of gates and billions of individual transistors.
Notable example Nvidia's 280 series GPU. This GPU is
unique in that almost all of its 1.4 billion transistors are
used for logic.
m Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic
equipment in use today,have revolutionized the world
of electronics.Computers, cellular phones, and other
digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the
structure of modern societies, made possible by the
low cost of production of integrated circuits.
m A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic
circuit constructed of individual semiconductor
devices, as well as passive components, bonded to
circuit board. .
m Digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gates .
The term Large Scale Integration was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when
describing the theoretical concept, from there came the terms for SSI, MSI, VLSI, and
ULSI.

m SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman
missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance
systems Integrated Circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the
decade, a typical application being FM inter-carrier sound processing in television
receivers.

m The next step in the development of integrated circuits, introduced devices which
contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).

m They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI
devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards,
less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other
advantages.

m Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale

Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.

m Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors,
that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000
transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced
around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.
A process whereby information is
enclosed in a package and is
channeled & imparted by a sender to
a receiver via some medium. The
receiver then decodes the message
and gives the sender a feedback. All
forms of communication require a
sender, a message, and an intended
recipient Communication requires
that all parties have an area of
communicative commonality.
m The receiver could be an individual person, a group of persons or even an audience.
There are a few of oral communication types: discussion, speeches, presentations, etc.
However, often when you communicate face to face the body language and your voice
tonality has a bigger impact than the actual words that you are saying.

m A widely cited and widely mis-interpreted figure, used to emphasize the importance of
delivery, is that "communication is 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content
of words", the so-called "7%-38%-55% rule". This is not however what the research
shows ± rather, when conveying emotion, if body language, tone of voice, and words
disagree, then body language and tone of voice will be believed more than
words.clarification needed For example, a person saying "I'm delighted to meet you"
while mumbling, hunched over, and looking away will be interpreted as insincere.

m We can notice that the content or the word that we are using is not the determining
part of a good communication. The "how you say it" has a major impact on the
receiver. For example, two persons saying the same joke, one of them could make the
audience die laughing related to his good body language and tone of voice. However,
the second person that has the exact same words could make the audience stare at
one another.

m In an oral communication, it is possible to have visual aid helping you to provide more
precise information. Often enough, we use a presentation program in presentations
related to our speech to facilitate or enhance the communication process.
m The process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages. Nonverbal communication
plays a key role in every person's day to day life.
m Categories and Features
m Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch,
sense of smell, and body motions.
m Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental
music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
m Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute,
horns, and sirens.
m Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.

m Static Features
m Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is
a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.
m Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back.
For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.
m Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that
convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a
degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.
m Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey
messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

m Dynamic Features
m Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions
continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the
meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.
m Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use
hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings,
most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.
m Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or
finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.
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m Small size and minimal weight,
allowing the development of
miniaturized electronic devices.
m Highly automated manufacturing
processes, resulting in low per-unit
cost.
m Lower possible operating voltages,
making transistors suitable for small,
battery-powered applications.
m No warm-up period for cathode
heaters required after power
application.
m Lower power dissipation and generally
greater energy efficiency.
m Higher reliability and greater physical
ruggedness.
m Extremely long life. Some
transistorized devices have been in
service for more than 50 years.
m Complementary devices available,
facilitating the design of
complementary-symmetry circuits,
something not possible with vacuum
tubes.
m Insensitivity to mechanical shock and
vibration, thus avoiding the problem of
microphonics in audio applications.
m Limitations
m Silicon transistors do not operate
at voltages higher than about
1,000 volts (SiC devices can be
operated as high as 3,000 volts).
In contrast, electron tubes have
been developed that can be
operated at tens of thousands of
volts.
m High power, high frequency
operation, such as that used in
over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved
in electron tubes due to improved
electron mobility in a vacuum.
m Silicon transistors are much more
vulnerable than electron tubes to
an electromagnetic pulse
generated by a high-altitude
nuclear explosion.
uprocessor year bit adw Mem size

4004 1971 4 10 1kb

8085a 1976 8 16 64kb
8086 1978 16 20 1Mb
8088 1980 8 20 1Mb
80186 1981 16 20 1Mb
80188 1982 8 20 1Mb
80286 1983 16 20 16Mb real,4Gb
virtual
80386sx 1984 16 24 16Mb
80386ex 1985 16 26 64Gb
80386dx 1986 32 32 4Gb
Pentium 199 64 32 4Gb+16Kb cache
3
Pentium 199 32 32 4Gb+16Kb cache
overdrive 4
(replaced
80486)
Pentium 199 64 36 64Gb+16kb
pro 5 l1cache+256kb
l2 cache
Pentium- 199 64 36 64Gb+32Kb l1
2 7 cache+512Kb l2
cache
Pentium- 199 64 36 +1Mb cache
2 xeon 8
Pentium 1999 64 36 64Gb+32kb l1
-3 cache +256 l2
cache

Pentium 2000 64 36 +enhanced

4 speed
Of 1.3,1.4 and
1.5GHz