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Destructive (convergent) –
• Oceanic meets continental = Nazca plate is forced underneath the South American
plate.
• Oceanic meets oceanic – Pacific plate subducts underneath the Philippine plate.
• Continental meets continental –
Constructive ( diverging) -
• Eg – Somalian and Nubian plate moves away from the Arabian plate
Conservative plate –
• San Andreas fault – Pacific plate moves faster than the North American plate.
Collision –
• Himalayas – Indio Australian collides with the Eurasian plate.
Hot Spots
• Hawaii – Volcanic region formed in the middle of the pacific ocean and
made up entirely of islands.
• Hawaii is in the middle of the largest plates – pacific plate (intra plate)
• Kauai – Oldest main Hawaiian island formed over 5 million years ago.
• Kilauea – Active shield volcano and sits above the Hawaiian hotspot. In
May 2018 the worlds most active volcano had heated up. Eruptions have
been spewing lava into residential areas, destroying homes and roads.
• These eruptions are a result of an increase in pressure of the magma
chamber that fuels the volcano in addition to the intrusion of magma into
the side of the volcano.
Nepal Earthquake
• Location – Kathmandu (central Nepal).
• Magnitude – 7.6 with 2 aftershocks (6.6 and 6.7 magnitude)
• Depth of focus – 8.2km = shallow focus.
• Deaths – 8,964
• Destruction - $10 billion which is 50% of Nepal’s GDP.
Social impacts -
• Many people were working outside = More lives lost
• 700,000 pushed into poverty
• 3.7 million receiving humanitarian aid
Economic impacts –
• Tourists flows decreased by 72% after 2015 earthquake.
Preparedness –
Expecting a large earthquake for a long time but were not prepared.
Buildings constructed without the oversight of a trained engineer. – not strong enough
Hospital retrofitting – Hospital was able to withstand the pressure of earthquake due to them enforcing roof bracing and installing
seismic belts prior to the earthquake.
Relief – India – within 15 min send medical and relief team , China $9.3 million in tents, blankets and medical generators.
Red cross – 8000 staff and volunteers for search and rescue, first aid and evacuations. + cash grants to over 50,000 families who had
lost their businesses or homes.
Mexico Earthquake
2017 magnitude of 7.1
Focus 51km deep
225 killed
Buildings collapsed and power cut affected millions
Gas mains broke – fires
Since Mexico’s large earthquake in 1985 its more prepared. They have built more extensively and got smarter about
earthquake preparation.
Updated building codes and high regulations
Partnered with US and Japan to improve knowledge
Evacuation drills
Mexican football team – crowdfunding page – raised $175,000
Boxing day Tsunami – Indian Ocean
• December 26th 2004
• Earthquake in Indonesia caused a tsunami between 9.0 and 9.3 Mg.
• Indio Australian subducting underneath the Eurasian plate.
• Hit 12 countries – Worst effected = Indonesia as it killed over 236,000 people.
Nature of tsunami –
• Epicentre = close to densely populated area and gave people no time to react to tsunami.
• Low lying coastlines – waves travelled several m’s and caused lots of damage.
• No early warning systems in the Indian Ocean.
• Many countries hit were LIC – resources not available.
• Sri –Lanka – Mangrove trees had been destroyed to allow for tourist development – less natural
protections as the waves struck.
Impacts –
• 70 % of villagers killed in coastal villages
• Sri – Lanka – 50% of fishing industry was destroyed.
• Thailand’s tourist industry lost $25 million.
• Fresh water supplies and agricultural soil was contaminated by salt water.
Indian Ocean – monitoring system
• The German human aid program for the Indian Ocean region started immediately after
the disaster with substantial funding of 45M Euro for the proposed German Indian
Ocean Tsunami Early Warning System
• Steps - When an earthquake strikes in the Indian Ocean region, data is transmitted to
the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) based in Hawaii.
• The job is to locate and determine the size of earthquakes, determine whether they
have the potential to produce tsunamis and predict tsunami wave arrival times
wherever possible.
• The responsibility of each national agency to alert its population,
•
Tectonic vulnerability
• Complicated fault – Eurasian and African continental plate.
• Bam (2003) – Mg 6.6, Mercalli 11 = killed 31,000 when unbaked clay houses collapsed.
• Lack of understanding of the tectonic situation + how to be prepared.
• Turkey – Seismic mitigation has evolved in rural communities with aseismic building
practices. Urbanisation has replaced traditional building materials + methods with
reinforced concrete.
• Young adults move away – opportunity to pass on knowledge and understanding of
aseismic building practices is lost.
• Infrastructure built on Palaeozoic rock
• After Izmit (mg 7.4) – which killed 17,000 people there was a focus on training local
people within communities to reduce the impacts of earthquakes. Eg – Leaflet for
advice on making homes safer.
Haiti – Developing country
• Located on the fault between North American + Caribbean plate
• 2010 – Eq Mg 7.0 near capital
Physical factors –
• Shallow focus – 13km
• Liquefaction – caused buildings to sink
• Epicentre – close to densely populated area
Political, social and economic factors –
• Developing country, poor = limited resources which are spent more on immediate issues like disease rather than eq preparedness.
• High levels of corruption
• Lack of building controls and regulations meant buildings were poorly built + couldn’t sustain the ground shaking.
Impacts on Haiti
• Airport and aid supplies not distributed = more death
• ¼ of gov officials killed – couldn’t organise recovery and relief efforts.
• 2010 –outbreak of cholera – lack of medical resources + supplies health
• 39% Haitians had access to safe water, 24% sanitation
• 30 – 40% of gov budget came from aid
5 years later – still recovering
US $13 billion donated
2015 – 80,000 still living in informal houses or camps
Philippines – Multiple hazard zone
• Sits across a major convergent plate (prone to eq and volcanoes)
• Northern and eastern coasts face pacific ocean (world’s most typhoon prone area)
• 47 volcanoes – 30% live within 30km of a volcano
• 25% live in poverty
• Landslides due to steep photography
• Rapid urbanisation and growing population = increased vulnerability.
Montserrat –
Plymouth – destroyed by pyroclastic flows – all services here
5 years – pyroclastic continued to flow
2/3 housing destroyed
19 people killed
Farmland destroyed
7,000 moved out
Philippines
• Natural (physical ) – Location
Located in the ring of fire – subduction zone between Philippine plate and Sunda.
Geophysical hazard - Earthquakes likely – had over 154 earthquakes this year.
1900 – Luzon island – killed 1500 (mg 7.8)
• Volcano – Mount Pinatubo – landslide on a volcano – 8 months later erupted after 500
years of dormancy . During the eruption of Mt Pinatubo the Philippines was also hit
with Typhoon Yunga. Heavy rainfall turned volcanic ash into lahars.
• Hydrometeorological hazard (60% of land affected by this ) -Typhoons / tropical
storms - Lies within south east Asia’s typhoon belt- has 15 annually and 5 are said to
be the deadliest. Due to monsoon
• But also climate change – caused by increase in greenhouse gases
Human – Vulnerable settlements – Eg near Mount Pinatubo – urban sprawl increased
settlements . 2.5 million live in Manila
Deforestation – 1900- 2005 lost 1/3 of its forest cover. Logging – despite bans on timber
harvesting. Deforestation blames for soil erosion, flooding and droughts
Diverse places
Population structure
• Inner city – Newham
Male majority
High fertility
Internal migration from uni students.
• Outer London – Kingston Upon Thames
London’s wealthiest borough
Accessible
Expensive housing (mostly protected by greenbelt)
• Highland Scotland
Sparsely populated + remote
Accessibility is poor – mountainous
1 airport - inverness
Immigrants
Hereford – Fed up of eastern Europeans “flooding the area”
• Migrants putting pressure on schools and other services.
• Religion, food and fashion not the same.
• Empty shops have been reopened as foreign food stores and as a result Polish is
one of the most common languages spoken on the street.
Overabstractation – Thames basin home to 13 million – one of the driest UK areas with
690mm of water a year. Overabstractation leads to them driving up in times of low rainfall.
Reservoirs - interrupt natural water flows by delaying them and increasing evap. 7% more
water is evap by reservoirs than humans consume.
dams reduce river flow downstream, causing a loss of vegetation e.g. Kenya’s Tana River
floodplain forest is decaying because dams built upstream have prevented flooding
reservoirs abstract water from the drainage basin
Players
• in the UK planners are required to assess flood risk with land use change
• National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) sets out strict guidelines
• economic development increases the risk of higher flows and faster response
times. Developers have to show that the land use changes will not increase RO
beyond Greenfield standards