Lecture 11

Pete Vail Bob Mitchum

Modified from Van Wagoner et al., 1990

AAPG©1990 reprinted with permission of the AAPG
whose permission is required for further use.

Henry Posamentier George Ramsayer

John Van Wagoner Mac Jervey Rick Sarg

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Stratigraphic Analysis

Seismic Observations
are turned into
Stratigraphic Predictions
using Depositional Models

Seismic-Based EOD Map

Predicted Lithologies

Depositional Model

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
A Caution about Seismic Images

Seismic data has a resolution that is not as fine

as most stratigraphers are use to working

Units are often 10s to 100s of meters thick

meters
500

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Scale of Stratigraphic Correlation

• Using Outcrops or Cores High cm Very

60 Local
– Visually correlate laminae 40
and beds 20

– Units are centimeters thick 0

• Using Well Logs

Areal Extent
Well A Well B Well C
12

Resolution
– Pattern correlation of log 9

markers 6

– Units are meters thick 3

0
meters

• Using Seismic Data meters

300
– Seismic correlation of 200
bedsets and larger units 100
– Units are tens to hundreds 0 Basin-
of meters thick Low wide

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
The STRENGTHS of Seismic Data

• Good areal coverage

• Able to image major depositional units
• Able to identify potential source, reservoir,
and seal units
• Provides a stratigraphic framework within
which other data can be understood
– Well data Vail et al., 1977a

– Basin fill history

– HC systems

AAPG©1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.
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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
The WEAKNESSES of Seismic Data
• Limited vertical and lateral resolution: can’t
resolve “small” features
• Stratigraphic interpretation is limited by the
quality of the seismic data/imaging
• Seismic responses are non-unique – e.g., low
amplitude could be a massive sand or a thick
shale
• In new areas, we often have to ‘jump’ correlate
from adjacent outcrops or basins
• Post-depositional erosion and/or structuring can
hamper stratigraphic correlations and paleo-
depositional reconstructions
• Typically we can’t “see” hydrocarbons
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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Two Methods for Correlating

There are two basic ways to correlate

stratigraphy:
• By rock type i.e., Lithostratigraphy

• By age-equivalence i.e., Chronostratigraphy

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Lithostratigraphy

• Units are defined based on lithology

• Rock units vary in space and time
• Boundaries are subjective, and not physical
since lateral facies changes are gradational

‘A’ Sand
‘B’ Sand
‘B’ Sand

‘X’ Nonmarine Member

‘X’ Member
non-marine
‘A’ Sand
‘Z’ Shale ‘Z’ Shale

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Chronostratigraphy

• Units defined based on time-equivalent stratal

surfaces, natural stratigraphic subdivisions
• Chronozones vary in space but not time
• Correspond to physical boundaries, which can
generate reflections

Time Unit 1

Unit 3
Time Unit 2
Unit 2
Time Unit 3
Unit 1

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Question ???

What Do We Observe on Seismic Sections?

– Lithostratigraphic Units, or
– Chronostratigraphic Units?
A Thought Experiment:
– What geometry would we observe for a prograding
system

‘B’ Sand Unit 3

‘X’ Nonmarine Member Unit 2

Unit 1
‘A’ Sand
‘Z’ Shale

Lithostratigraphic? Chronostratigraphic?
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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Answer !!!

In a prograding depositional system, reflections

parallel stratal surfaces and therefore have time or
chronostratigraphic significance.

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Basic Tenet

• A basic tenet of seismic stratigraphy is that

seismic reflections parallel time lines

• Since stratal units above the scale of beds

mark units of time, we conclude that
seismic reflections are time-stratigraphic

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Why Is That ???

Recall: Reflections are generated where there is a change

in acoustic properties (z =  * v)
Consider: Where would sharp changes in impedance occur?
• horizontally as lithofacies change?
• vertically across stratal boundaries?
Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas

Very Gradational Lateral

Changes in Physical Properties

There Can Be Abrupt Vertical

Changes in Physical Properties
Especially at PS Boundaries

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
How Can We Define Stratal Units?
We want to subdivide a seismic section into meaningful
stratigraphic units
How can we do this?
Consider for a moment how you would do this with a
photo of an outcrop

Wouldn’t you look for

evidence of a significant
breaks in deposition?

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
North Wall of the Grand Canyon

Paleozoic

Pre-Cambrian

The angular discordance between the Pre-Cambrian rocks and the

Paleozoic rocks marks an unconformity that separates an older
stratigraphic package from a younger stratigraphic package

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Seismic Example of Angular Discordance

There is angular discordance between

reflections at the yellow line

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Terminations: Base of a Sequence

Older
Older
Beds
Beds

Onlap
A base-discordant relationship
in which younger strata
terminate progressively against
a surface of greater inclination
Downlap
A base-discordant relationship
in which younger inclined strata
terminate progressively against
a surface of lower inclination

NOTE: These definitions are based on observed geometric relationships, not

on inferred depositional processes

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Terminations: Top of a Sequence

Younger Younger
Beds Beds

Erosion
A top-discordant relationship in
which strata terminate along an
unconformity surface due to
post-depositional erosion
Toplap
A top-discordant relationship in
which strata terminate against a
surface mainly as a result of
non-deposition (bypass)

NOTE: These definitions are based on observed geometric relationships

AND some inference about depositional processes

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Seismic Sequence
Mitchum et al., 1977a

Overlying Truncation
Toplap Unconformity

Underlying
Unconformity
Onlap

Downlap Internal
Convergence
AAPG©1977reprinted with permission of the AAPG whose permission is required for further use.

A depositional sequence is a relatively conformable succession of

genetically related strata bounded at its top and base by
unconformities or their correlative conformities.

A seismic sequence is a depositional sequence identified on a

seismic section

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis
Time for an Exercise

Line C: Offshore West Africa

Mitchum et al., 1977b
0.0 0

DEPTH KILOFEET
1.0
5
TIME - SECONDS

2.0 10

15
3.0
20

4.0

5.0

6.0
AAPG©1977reprinted with permission of the AAPG
0 5 KM whose permission is required for further use.
V.E. x 4
0 5 MILES

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L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis