Forming and Shaping of Plastics,

Ceramics, and Glasses

Chapter # 8
SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS
1. Properties of Polymer Melts
2. Extrusion
3. Injection Molding
4. Thermoforming
 Plastic Products
 Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of
products:
 Molded parts
 Extruded sections
 Films
 Sheets
 Insulation coatings on electrical wires
 Fibers for textiles
 More Plastic Products
 In addition, plastics are often the principal
ingredient in other materials, such as
 Paints and varnishes
 Adhesives
 Various polymer matrix composites
 Many plastic shaping processes can be
adapted to produce items made of rubbers and
polymer matrix composites
 Trends in Polymer Processing
 Applications of plastics have increased at a
much faster rate than either metals or ceramics
during the last 50 years
 Many parts previously made of metals are
now being made of plastics
 Plastic containers have been largely
substituted for glass bottles and jars
 Total volume of polymers (plastics and
rubbers) now exceeds that of metals
 Two Types of Plastics
1. Thermoplastics
 Chemical structure remains unchanged
during heating and shaping
 More important commercially, comprising
more than 70% of total plastics tonnage
2. Thermosets
 Undergo a curing process during heating
and shaping, causing a permanent change
(cross-linking) in molecular structure
 Once cured, they cannot be remelted
Classification of Shaping Processes
 Extruded products with constant cross-section
 Continuous sheets and films
 Continuous filaments (fibers)
 Molded parts that are mostly solid
 Hollow molded parts with relatively thin walls
 Discrete parts made of formed sheets and films
 Castings
 Foamed products
 Polymer Melts
 To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be
heated so that it softens to the consistency of a
liquid
 In this form, it is called a polymer melt
 Important properties of polymer melts:
 Viscosity
 Viscoelasticity
 Viscosity of Polymer Melts
Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear
rate during flow
 Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer
melt is a thick fluid with high viscosity
 Most polymer shaping processes involve flow
through small channels or die openings
 Flow rates are often large, leading to high
shear rates and shear stresses, so
significant pressures are required to
accomplish the processes
 Viscosity and Shear Rate
Viscosity of a polymer
melt decreases with
shear rate, thus the
fluid becomes thinner
at higher shear rates

Viscosity relationships for

Newtonian fluid and typical
polymer melt.
 Viscosity and Temperature
Viscosity decreases with temperature, thus the
fluid becomes thinner at higher temperatures

Viscosity as a function of temperature for selected polymers

at a shear rate of 103 s-1.
 Viscoelasticity
Combination of viscosity and elasticity
 Possessed by both polymer solids and polymer
melts
 Example: die swell in extrusion, in which the
hot plastic expands when exiting the die
opening
 Die Swell

Extruded polymer "remembers" its previous shape

when in the larger cross section of the extruder,
tries to return to it after leaving the die orifice

Die swell, a manifestation of viscoelasticity in polymer melts, as

depicted here on exiting an extrusion die.
 Extrusion
Compression process in which material is forced
to flow through a die orifice to provide long
continuous product whose cross-sectional
shape is determined by the shape of the orifice
 Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers
to mass produce items such as tubing, pipes,
hose, structural shapes, sheet and film,
continuous filaments, and coated electrical wire
 Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate
is then cut into desired lengths
 Extruder
Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for
plastics and elastomers
Two Main Components of an Extruder
1. Barrel
2. Screw
 Die - not an extruder component
 Special tool that must be fabricated for
particular profile to be produced
 Extruder Barrel
 Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150 mm
(1.0 to 6.0 in.)
 L/D ratios usually between 10 and 30: higher ratios
for thermoplastics, lower ratios for elastomers
 Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose rotation
moves material through barrel
 Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing
and mechanical working adds heat which maintains
the melt
 Extruder Screw
 Divided into sections to serve several functions:
 Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper and
preheated
 Compression section - polymer is transformed into
fluid, air mixed with pellets is extracted from melt, and
material is compressed
 Metering section - melt is homogenized and sufficient
pressure developed to pump it through die opening
 Extruder Screw

Details of an extruder screw inside the barrel.

 Die End of Extruder
 Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads
ultimately to the die zone
 Before reaching die, the melt passes through a screen
pack - series of wire meshes supported by a stiff plate
containing small axial holes
 Functions of screen pack:
 Filter out contaminants and hard lumps
 Build pressure in metering section
 Straighten flow of polymer melt and remove its
"memory" of circular motion from screw
Die Configurations and Extruded Products
 The shape of the die orifice determines the
cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
 Common die profiles and corresponding
extruded shapes:
 Solid profiles
 Hollow profiles, such as tubes
 Wire and cable coating
 Sheet and film
 Filaments
 Injection Molding

Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and

forced to flow under high pressure into a
mold cavity where it solidifies and the
molding is then removed from cavity
 Produces discrete components almost
always to net shape
 Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles
of one minute or more are not uncommon
 Mold may contain multiple cavities, so
multiple moldings are produced each cycle
 Injection Molded Parts
 Complex and intricate shapes are possible
 Shape limitations:
 Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity
is the same geometry as part
 Shape must allow for part removal from
mold
 Part size from  50 g (2 oz) up to  25 kg
(more than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
 Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold
 Polymers for Injection Molding
 Injection molding is the most widely used
molding process for thermoplastics
 Some thermosets and elastomers are
injection molded
 Modifications in equipment and operating
parameters must be made to avoid
premature cross-linking of these
materials before injection
 Injection Molding Machine
Two principal components:
1. Injection unit
 Melts and delivers polymer melt
 Operates much like an extruder
2. Clamping unit
 Opens and closes mold each injection
cycle
 Injection Molding Machine
A large (3000 ton capacity) injection molding
machine
 Injection Molding Machine
Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating
screw type (some mechanical details are simplified).
Injection Unit of Molding Machine
Consists of barrel fed from one end by a hopper
containing supply of plastic pellets
 Inside the barrel is a screw which:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating polymer
2. Acts as a ram (i.e., plunger) to inject
molten plastic into mold
 Non-return valve near tip of screw
prevents melt flowing backward along
screw threads
Clamping Unit of Molding Machine
 Functions:
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper
alignment with each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by
applying a clamping force sufficient to
resist injection force
3. Opens and closes mold at the appropriate
times in molding cycle
Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (1) mold is closed

 Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (2) melt is injected into cavity.

 Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (3) screw is retracted.

 Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (4) mold opens and part is ejected.

 The Mold
 The special tool in injection molding
 Custom-designed and fabricated for the part to
be produced
 When production run is finished, the mold is
replaced with a new mold for the next part
 Various types of mold for injection molding:
 Two-plate mold
 Three-plate mold
 Hot-runner mold
Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding
Molding of thermoplastic parts that possess dense
outer skin surrounding lightweight foam center
 Part has high stiffness-to-weight ratio suited to
structural applications
 Produced either by introducing a gas into molten
plastic in injection unit or by mixing a
gas-producing ingredient with starting pellets
 A small amount of melt is injected into mold
cavity, where it expands to fill cavity
 Foam in contact with cold mold surface
collapses to form dense skin, while core retains
cellular structure
Injection Molding of Thermosets
 Equipment and operating procedure must be
modified to avoid premature cross-linking of TS
polymer
 Reciprocating-screw injection unit with
shorter barrel length
 Temperatures in barrel are relatively low
 Melt is injected into a heated mold, where
cross-linking occurs to cure the plastic
 Curing in the mold is the most
time-consuming step in the cycle
 Mold is then opened and part is removed
 Thermoforming
Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and
deformed into desired shape using a mold
 Heating usually accomplished by radiant
electric heaters located on one or both sides of
starting plastic sheet or film
 Widely used in packaging of products and to
fabricate large items such as bathtubs,
contoured skylights, and internal door liners for
refrigerators
 Vacuum Thermoforming

Vacuum thermoforming: (1) a flat plastic sheet is softened

by heating
 Vacuum Thermoforming

Vacuum thermoforming: (2) the softened sheet is placed

over a concave mold cavity
 Vacuum Thermoforming

Figure 13.35 Vacuum thermoforming: (3) a vacuum draws

the sheet into the cavity
 Vacuum Thermoforming

(4) plastic hardens on

contact with the cold
mold surface, and the
part is removed and
subsequently trimmed
from the web.
Negative Molds vs. Positive Molds
Negative mold has concave cavity
Positive mold has convex shape
 Both types are used in thermoforming
 For positive mold, heated sheet is draped over
convex form and negative or positive pressure
forces plastic against mold surface
 Vacuum Thermoforming

Use of a positive mold in vacuum thermoforming: (1) the heated plastic

sheet is positioned above the convex mold
 Vacuum Thermoforming

Use of a positive mold in vacuum thermoforming: (2) the clamp is

lowered into position, draping the sheet over the mold as a vacuum
forces the sheet against the mold surface
 Materials for Thermoforming
 Only thermoplastics can be thermoformed,
 Extruded sheets of thermosetting or
elastomeric polymers have already been
cross-linked and cannot be softened by
reheating
 Common TP polymers: polystyrene, cellulose
acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, PVC,
acrylic (polymethylmethacrylate), polyethylene,
and polypropylene
 PROCESSING OF CERAMICS
AND CERMETS

1. Processing of Traditional Ceramics

2. Processing of New Ceramics
Types of Ceramics and Their Processing
 Ceramic materials divide into three categories:
1. Traditional ceramics – particulate
processing
2. New ceramics – particulate processing
3. Glasses – solidification processing

Only (2 & 3) will be covered in detail here

 Ceramics Processing Overview
 Traditional ceramics are made from minerals
occurring in nature
 Products: pottery, porcelain, bricks, and
cement
 New ceramics are made from synthetically
produced raw materials
 Products: cutting tools, artificial bones,
nuclear fuels, substrates for electronic
circuits
 Starting material for these products is powder
 Ceramics Processing Overview
 For traditional ceramics
 Powders are usually mixed with water to bind
the particles together and achieve the proper
consistency for shaping
 For new ceramics
 Substances other than water are used as
binders during shaping
 After shaping, green parts are fired (sintered)
 Function is the same as in powder metallurgy
- to effect a solid state reaction which bonds
the material into a hard solid mass
 Ceramics Processing Overview

Usual steps in traditional ceramics processing: (1) preparation of raw

materials, (2) shaping, (3) drying, and (4) firing. Part (a) shows the
workpart during the sequence, while (b) shows the condition of the
powders.
 Processing of New Ceramics
 Manufacturing sequence for new ceramics
can be summarized in the following steps:
1. Preparation of starting materials
2. Shaping
3. Sintering
4. Finishing
Preparation of Starting Materials
 Strength requirements are usually much
greater for new ceramics than for traditional
ceramics
 Therefore, starting powders must be smaller
and more uniform in size and composition,
since the strength of the resulting ceramic
product is inversely related to grain size
 Greater control over the starting powders is
required
 Powder preparation includes mechanical
and chemical methods
 Shaping of New Ceramics
 Many of the shaping processes for new
ceramics are borrowed from powder metallurgy
(PM) and traditional ceramics
 PM press and sinter methods have been
adapted to the new ceramic materials
 Hot Pressing
Similar to dry pressing except it is carried out at
elevated temperatures so sintering of the
product is accomplished simultaneously with
pressing
 This eliminates the need for a separate firing
step
 Higher densities and finer grain size are
obtained, but die life is reduced by the hot
abrasive particles against the die surfaces
 Isostatic Pressing
Uses hydrostatic pressure to compact the
ceramic powders from all directions
 Avoids the problem of non-uniform density in
the final product that is often observed in
conventional uniaxial pressing
 Same process used in powder metallurgy
 Powder Injection Molding (PIM)
Ceramic particles are mixed with a thermoplastic,
then heated and injected into a mold cavity
 Polymer acts as a carrier and provides flow
characteristics for molding
 Upon cooling which hardens the polymer, the
mold is opened and part is removed
 Because temperatures needed to plasticize the
carrier are much lower than those for sintering
the ceramic, the piece is green after molding
 The plastic binder is removed and the
remaining ceramic part is sintered
 Sintering of New Ceramics
 Cause (ores or powdery metals) to become a
coherent mass by heating without melting
 Functions of sintering are the same as before:
1. Bond individual grains into a solid mass
2. Increase density
3. Reduce or eliminate porosity
Finishing Operations for New Ceramics
 Parts made of new ceramics sometimes
require finishing, which has one or more of the
following purposes:
1. Increase dimensional accuracy
2. Improve surface finish
3. Make minor changes in part geometry
 Finishing usually involves abrasive processes
 Diamond abrasives must be used to cut
the hardened ceramic materials
 Cemented Carbides
A family of composite materials consisting of
carbide ceramic particles imbedded in a
metallic binder
 Classified as metal matrix composites because
the metallic binder is the matrix that holds the
bulk material together
 However, the carbide particles constitute the
largest proportion of the composite material,
normally between 80% and 95% by volume
Binder Needed for Cemented Carbides

 Carbide powders must be sintered with a metal

binder to provide a strong and pore-free part
 Cobalt works best with WC
 Nickel is better with TiC and Cr3C2
 Percentage of binder metal is 4% up to 20%
 Powders of carbide and binder metal are
thoroughly mixed wet in a ball mill to form a
homogeneous sludge
 The sludge is then dried in a vacuum or
controlled atmosphere to prevent oxidation in
preparation for compaction
 Compaction

 Most common process is cold pressing,

used for high production of cemented
carbide parts such as cutting tool inserts
 Dies must be oversized to account for
shrinkage during sintering
 For high production, dies are made with
WC-Co liners to reduce wear
 For smaller quantities, large flat sections
may be pressed and then cut into
smaller pieces
 Sintering of WC-Co
 It is possible to sinter WC (and TiC) without a
metal binder, but the resulting material is less
than 100% of true density
 Using a binder yields a structure virtually
free of porosity
 Sintering of WC-Co = liquid phase sintering
 Usual sintering temperatures for WC-Co are
1370-1425C, which is below cobalt's
melting point of 1495C
 Thus, the pure binder metal does not melt at
the sintering temperature
 Sintering of WC-Co
 However, WC is gradually dissolved in Co
during heat treatment, and its melting point is
reduced so melting occurs
 As liquid phase forms, it flows and wets the
WC particles, further dissolving the solid
 Molten metal also serves to remove gases
from the internal regions of the compact
 These mechanisms cause rearrangement of
remaining WC particles into a closer packing,
which results in significant densification and
shrinkage of the WC-Co mass
 GLASSWORKING
1. Raw Materials Preparation and Melting
2. Shaping Processes in Glassworking
3. Heat Treatment and Finishing
 Glass: Overview of the Material
 Glass is distinguished by its noncrystalline
(vitreous) structure
 The other ceramic materials have a
crystalline structure
 Glass Products
 Glass products are commercially produced in
an almost unlimited variety of shapes
 Most products made in very large quantities:
 Light bulbs, beverage bottles, jars, light
bulbs
 Window glass
 Glass tubing (e.g., for fluorescent lighting)
 Glass fibers
 Other products are made individually:
 Giant telescope lenses
 Shaping Methods for Glass
 Methods for shaping glass are quite different
from those for traditional and new ceramics
 In glassworking, the principal starting material
is silica, usually combined with other oxide
ceramics that form glasses
 Process sequence in shaping glass:
 Starting material is heated to transform it
from a hard solid into a viscous liquid
 It is then shaped while in this fluid condition
 When cooled and hard, the material remains
in the glassy state rather than crystallizing
Process Sequence in Glassworking
The typical process sequence in glassworking:
(1) preparation of raw materials and melting,
(2) shaping, and
(3) heat treatment.
Raw Materials Preparation and Melting
 The principal component in nearly all glasses is
silica (SiO2)
 Primary source is natural quartz in sand
 Other components are added in proportions to
achieve the desired composition:
 Soda ash (source of Na2O), limestone
(source of CaO), aluminum oxide (Al2O3),
and potash (source of K2O),
 Recycled glass is usually added to the
mixture too
 Glass Melting
 The batch of starting materials to be melted is
called a charge, and loading it into the furnace
is called charging the furnace
 Melting temperatures for glass are around
1500C to 1600C
 Viscosity of molten glass is inversely related to
temperature
 Since shaping immediately follows melting,
the temperature at which the glass is tapped
depends on the viscosity required for the
shaping process
Shaping Processes in Glassworking
 Shaping processes to fabricate glass products
can be grouped into three categories:
1. Discrete processes for piece ware (bottles,
jars, plates, light bulbs)
2. Continuous processes for making flat glass
(sheet and plate glass) and tubing
(laboratory ware, fluorescent lights)
3. Fiber-making processes to produce fibers
(for insulation and fiber optics)
 Shaping of Piece Ware
 Ancient methods of hand-working glass
included glass blowing
 Handicraft methods are still used today for
making glassware items of high value in small
quantities
 However, most modern glass shaping
processes are highly mechanized technologies
for producing discrete pieces such as jars,
bottles, and light bulbs in high quantities
 Spinning

Spinning of funnel-shaped glass parts such as back

sections of cathode ray tubes for TVs and computer
monitors: (1) gob of glass dropped into mold; and (2)
rotation of mold to cause spreading of molten glass on
mold surface.
 Pressing

Pressing of flat glass pieces: (1) glass gob is fed into mold
from furnace; (2) pressing into shape by plunger; and (3)
plunger is retracted and finished product is removed
(symbols v and F indicate motion (velocity) and applied
force).
 Press-and-Blow

Press-and-blow forming sequence: (1) molten gob is fed into mold

cavity; (2) pressing to form a parison; (3) the partially formed
parison, held in a neck ring, is transferred to the blow mold, and
(4) blown into final shape.
 Blow-and-Blow

Blow-and-blow forming sequence: (1) gob is fed into inverted

mold cavity; (2) mold is covered; (3) first blowing step; (4)
partially formed piece is reoriented and transferred to second
blow mold, and (5) blown to final shape.
 Casting
 If molten glass is sufficiently fluid, it can be
poured into a mold
 Massive objects, such as astronomical lenses
and mirrors, are made by this method
 After cooling and solidifying, the piece must be
finished by lapping and polishing
 Casting of glass is not often used except for
special jobs
 Smaller lenses are usually made by pressing
Shaping of Flat and Tubular Glass
 Processes for producing flat glass such as
sheet and plate glass:
 Rolling of flat plate
 Float process
 Process for producing glass tubes
 Danner process
 Rolling of Flat Plate

Starting glass from melting furnace is squeezed

through opposing rolls whose gap determines
sheet thickness, followed by grinding and
polishing for parallelism and smoothness

Rolling of flat glass

 Float Process
Molten glass flows onto surface of a molten tin
bath, where it spreads evenly across the surface,
achieving a uniform thickness and smoothness -
no grinding or polishing is needed

The float process for producing sheet glass

 Danner Process
Molten glass flows around a rotating hollow mandrel
through which air is blown while glass is drawn

Drawing of glass tubes by the Danner process.

Heat Treatment: Annealing of Glass
Heating to elevated temperature and holding to
eliminate stresses and temperature gradients;
then slow cooling to suppress stress formation,
then more rapid cooling to room temperature
 Annealing temperatures are ~ 500C
 Annealing has the same function in
glassworking as in metalworking – to relieve
stresses
 Annealing is performed in tunnel-like furnaces,
called lehrs, in which the products flow slowly
through the hot chamber on conveyors
 Tempering of Glass
Heating to a temperature somewhat above
annealing temperature into the plastic range,
followed by quenching of surfaces, usually by
air jets
 When the surfaces cool, they contract and
harden while interior is still plastic
 As the internal glass cools, it contracts, putting
the hard surfaces in compression
 Tempered glass is more resistant to scratching
and breaking due to compressive stresses on
its surfaces