CHAPTER 15: Community and ecosystem ecology

by : akmal fikri,zulhelmi,syahira,izzah and azleen

Outline
• 45.1 Ecology of Community
• 45.2 Community Development
• 45.3 Dynamic of an Ecosystem
• 45.6 Ecological Consequence of Climate
Change
 Ecology of communities
• Community
-A group of populations that
interact with one another in the
same environment.
 Ecology of communities
• Community Structure
- The species richness/species composition of a
community is a listing of various species in the
community.
 Ecology of communities

Species diversity
includes both species
richness and the
abundance of different
species
 ECOLOGY OF COMMUNITIES

ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY
MODEL
-States that species diversity on
the an island depends on:
1. Distance from mainland
2. Total area of the island
 Community interaction
• Ecological
-The sum total of an organism’s use of biotic and abiotic resources
in its environment ; its ‘ecological role’
• Habitat
-Where an organism lives and reproduces in the environment.
 The niche
• The functional role of the organism in an ecosystem.

Factors for The Niche

• Abiotic
• Behaviour
• Food sources
 The niche

• Fundamental
-The set of resources a population is
theoretically capable of using under
ideal conditions
• Realized
-The resources a population actually
uses
• Thus, 2 species cannot coexist in a
community if their niches are identical
 The niche vs habitat
• What is the difference between the niche and habitat of
an organisms ???

-The habitat includes only biotic and abiotic factors of the

area where the organism lives.

-The niche includes the habitat and also the way in which
the organism uses the condition of the area.
Competition between population

• Occur when members of different species try to use a

resource that is limited.
• For example , light , space and nutrient .
• If the resource is not limited supply , there is no
competition .
Competition between two laboratory
population of paramecium
• In 1930s , G.F.Gause grew two species of paramecium in one
test tube .

• The test tube containing a fixed food .

• Although each population survived when grown separately ,

only one survived when they were grown together .

• The successful paramecium had a higher biotic potential than

the unsuccessful paramecium .
• G.F.Gause found that two species of paramecium did
occupy the same tube .

• One fed on the food at the bottom and the other fed the
food suspended in solution

• Paramecium from the each species that can avoid

competition have a reproductive .
Resource partioning

• Division of resource in order to decrease competition

between two species .

• This often leads to increase niche specialization and less

niche overlap .
NICHE SPECIALIZATION IN
NATURE

• 3 Species of ground finches of the Galapagos Islands occur on

separate island .

• Their beak tend to be same intermediate size , enabling to feed

on wider range of seeds.

• 3 species co-occur , selection has favored divergence in beak

size , due to affects the kinds of seed that can be eaten .

• Competition has led to resource partitioning and niche

specialization .
CHARACTER DISPLACEMENT

• Tendency for characteristics to be more divergent when

population belongs to the same community than when
they are isolated .

• It used as evidence that competition and resource

partiotioning have taken place .
Example 1
• Five different species of warblers occur in North American forest .

• They have same size , and all feed on a type of spruce tree caterpillar .

• Robert MacArthur recorded the amount of time each five warbler species in
different regions of source to determine where each species did most its feeding .

• Each species primarily used different parts of the tree , more specialized niche .
 EXAMPLE 2

• Involve swallows , swifts and martins .

• All eat flying insects and parachuting spiders .

• They fly together in mixed flock .

• However ,each type of bird has a different nesting site and migrate at a slightly
different time of year .

• So, they not competing for the same food source at the same time .
Predator-Prey Interactions

 Predation occur when one living

organism, called a predator, feeds on
another called prey.
 Parasitism can be considered a type of
predation.
Predator-Prey Population Dynamic

• Predators play role in determining the population density

of prey.
• The size of predators population and prey population
depends on each other.
• Two possibilities account for the reduction:

- Reproductive rate of the predator is so great that its

increase number of overconsume the prey.
- Biotic potential of the predator is unable to keep pace
with the prey, and the prey population overshoots the
carrying capacity and suffers a crash. Now the
predator population follows suit because of a lack of
food.
Predator-Prey Cycle

Prey

Predator
 Prey
Defenses

Warning
Camouflage Fright
colorization
Mimicry ( looking like another organism to increase chance of
survival)

deceptive signal honest signal honest signal

hoverfly harmless wasp can sting bee can sting
 Commensal
Symbioticism Mutualism
Relationship
One species Both
is benefited members
Parasitism
and the benefit.
A parasite, derives other is
nourishment from
another, called a host. neither
benefited
nor harm.
 45.2 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
• The communities or habitats we see today were not as green
and full of life from the very beginning.
• Our planet, Earth has undergone several succession as
theories suggest that our planet was once a hot ball which
cooled down in thousand years.
• Ecological succession is a change within a community
involving a series of species replacements.
• Types : Primary Succession & Secondary Succession HOT
 Comparison Chart
PRIMARY SUCCESSION TYPES SECONDARY SUCCESSION

A type of biological sucession that

A type of ecological succession that
happens to the area that has pre
happens to the area that is devoid of DEFINITION
existing soil and had previously
vegetation, and is barren or lifeless
inhabited

Volvanic eruption Shrub

EXAMPLE
Glacial retreat Mixture of shrubs & trees

Place that has no base soil and Place that has soil, humus and some
AREA OF HAPPENING
LIFELESS inhabitants

Long Short
DURATION
( 100 - 1000 years ) ( 50 - 200 years )
 Pioneer species

• First producers to inhabit a

community after a disturbance.

• These are the first species that

begin secondary succession

• The initial stage begins with a

small, short-lived species and
proceeds through stage of species
of mixed sizes and life spans until
finally large, long-lived species of
trees pre-dominate
 Why does succession happen ?
• Every organism helps change and sort the environment
• As one species alters its environment, other species may
find it easier to survive
• eg : as lichens release organic matter for soil, mosses
and other plants can colonize and grow
• eg : as trees grow their branches and leaves, it produces
shade and cooler temperature near the ground
45.3 Dynamics of an Ecosystem

• Ecosystem is composed of the interactions between

population as well as physical environment.

• Abiotic(non living) component like atmosphere,water

and soil

• Biotic(living) component categorized according food

source as autotrophs or heterotrophs
 AUTOTROPHS BIOTIC COMPONENT
Organisms that require
only inorganic nutrients
and outside energy
source to produce
organic nutrients for own
use and all members of
community
Producers
-plants and
algae(photoautorophs)
-autotrophic bacteria
(chemoautotrophs)
HETEROTROPHS
DEFINITION Organisms that need
preformed organic
nutrients as an energy
source.
TYPE Consumers
EXAMPLE Herbivores( caterpillars)
Carnivores( snakes)
Omnivores(chickens)
Detritivores( earthworms)
Decomposers(fungi)
 Energy flow.

- flows through various pathway.

- only a portion of organic nutrients made by
producers is passed on to consumer.
- only a small percentage of nutrients consumed
by lower-level consumers is available to
higher-level consumers.
Grazing and deterial food web
Trophic levels

• a level of nutrients within a food web or chain.

• figure(a) , green plants in first trophic level
(producers),animals in center in second trophic level
(primary consumers),last group of animals in third
trophic level (secondary consumer)
 Ecological Pyramids

• the flow of energy with large losses between successive

trophic levels.
Example of ecological pyramid
thank you!