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Digestion
involves both mechanical and chemical processes.
Mechanical Process
- physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces, which provides a
greater surface area for contact with digestive secretions. Involves
Chew, Tear, Grind, Mash, Mix.
Chemical Process
- splitting of complex, nonabsorbable food molecules into small,
absorbable nutrient molecules by the addition of water (hydrolysis).
Hydrolysis
Nonabsorbable Digestive enzymes Absorbable
food + Water nutrient
Molecules molecules
Digestion
A number of different types of
enzymes are involved in digestion.
Each type of digestive enzyme acts
on a particular type of food
molecule and speeds up its
breakdown into smaller molecules.
A series of digestive reactions
involving several digestive
Major Organs of
the Digestive System
Alimentary Canal
General Characteristics
A muscular tube about 9 m (29 ft) in length that
extends from the mouth to the anus. Various
portions of the alimentary canal are specialized to
perform different digestive functions.
Structure of the wall
Serosa (Serous layer)
The outer layer.
It is formed of the visceral peritoneum and is continuous
with the parietal peritoneum, which lines the inner
abdominal wall.
Cells of the peritoneum secrete serous fluid, which keeps
the membrane surfaces moist and reduces friction as
parts of the alimentary canal rub against each other and
the abdominal wall.
Structure of the wall
Muscular layer
Lies just under the serosa.
Muscle fibers of the outer layer are arranged
longitudinally. Their contractions shorten the tube.
Muscle fibers of the inner layer are arranged circularly
around the tube. Their contractions constrict the tube.
Contractions of these muscular layers mix food with
digestive secretions and move food through the
alimentary canal.
Structure of the wall
Submucosa
Lies
between the muscular layer and the mucosa. It
contains nerves, lymphatic vessels, and blood vessels
embedded in loose connective tissue.
Structure of the wall
Mucosa
The innermost layer.
The mucosa has different functions in different parts of
the digestive tract. In some regions, it secretes only
mucus, which protects underlying cells. In others, it
secretes mucus and digestive fluids containing enzymes,
and it absorbs nutrients.
Movements
Mixing movement- involve alternating rhythmic
contractions of muscle fibers in short segments of the
alimentary canal. This ripple like contractions mix food
substances with digestive secretions.
Propelling movements- the movements that propel food
through the alimentary canal are called peristalsis.
Trypsin
– major pancreatic enzyme in pancreatic juice. It splits
proteins into shorter amino acid chains called peptides. Like
pepsin in the stomach, it is secreted in an inactive form and
is activated when mixed with intestinal secretions within
the small intestine.
Liver
produces bile, which breaks down fats in foods
Largest gland in the body. It weighs about 1.4 kg
(3 lb) and is dark reddish brown in color.
Detoxifies poisons and harmful chemicals, such
as alcohol and other drugs; removes worn-out
blood cells; and stores fat, glycogen, iron, and
several vitamins.
Liver
The liver receives blood from two sources:
– Hepatic Artery
Brings oxygenated blood to the liver cells.
– Hepatic Portal Vein
Brings deoxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the
digestive tract.
Liver
Asblood flows through the liver, liver cells
remove, modify, or add substances to the blood
before it leaves the liver via the hepatic vein.
Liver
A yellowish green
Bile
pigment.
Consists of water, bile
salts, bile pigments,
cholesterol, and
minerals.
Bile Pigments, mostly
bilirubin, are waste
products f hemoglobin
breakdown.
Bile
Bile salts are the only bile components that play
a digestive role. When in contact with fatty
substances, they break up the lipid globules into
very small droplets, a process called
emulsification.
Emulsification
– Greatly increases the surface area of the lipid
substances exposed to water and lipid digesting
enzymes.
Release of Bile
Bile normally enters the duodenum only when
food is present. When the intestine is empty,
the hepatopancreatic sphincter at the base of
the common bile to enter the gallbladder, where
it is stored temporarily.
Release of Bile
Small Intestine
Is about 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter and 6.4 m (21 ft) in
length.
It begins at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach, fills
much of the abdomen, and empties into the large
intestine. Most of the digestion of foods and
absorption of nutrients occur in the small intestine.
Small Intestine (Structure)
Three sequential segments:
– Duodenum
A very short section, about 25 cm
long, that receives chyme from the
stomach.
– Jejunum
The middle section, about 2.5 m
long.
– Ileum
Last and longest segment, which is
about 3.6 m long.
Intestinal juice
clear to pale yellow, watery secretion composed of
hormones, digestive enzymes, mucus, and neutralizing
substances released from the glands and mucous-
membrane lining of the small and large intestines.
neutralizes hydrochloric acid coming from
the stomach; releases gastrointestinal hormones into
the bloodstream; and contains digestive enzymes
that facilitate the digestion and absorption of food.
Intestinal juice
http://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-d-human-physiology/d2-digestion/digestive-juices.html
Large Intestine
removes water from the chyme and gets the
waste ready for excretion
is made up of the colon and the rectum
Over the surface of the large intestine are
longitudinal muscle fibers called taeniae coli, each
about 5 mm wide. There are sacculations called
haustra that are characteristic features of the large
intestine, and distinguish it from the rest of the
intestines.
Large Intestine
The absorption of water and the formation and
expulsion of feces are major functions of the large
intestine. Bacteria decompose the nondigested
materials.
Mass peristaltic movements propel the feces into the
rectum, initiating the defecation reflex, which opens
the internal anal sphincter. Voluntary relaxation of the
external sphincter allows expulsion of the feces.
Large Intestine (Structure)
Consists of three segments:
– Cecum
Pouchlike, bulges below the ileocecal sphincter.
– Colon
Forms most of the large intestine, and is subdivided into four segments:
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
– Rectum
Short, terminal portion of the large intestine.
Large
Intestine
(Structure)
NUTRIENTS: Sources and Uses
Nutrients are substances present in foods that are
used in the normal growth and maintenance of the
body. The required nutrients are carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. The liver
plays an important role in the metabolism of various
nutrients.
Carbohydrates
can also be defined chemically as neutral compounds of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
come in simple forms such as sugars and in complex
forms such as starches and fiber. The body breaks
down most sugars and starches into glucose,
a simple sugar that the body can use to feed its cells
lipid
is chemically defined as a substance that is insoluble in
water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.
are an important component of living cells. Together with
carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main
constituents of plant and animal cells. Cholesterol and
triglycerides are lipids.
The main biological functions of lipids include storing
energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of
cell membranes
Proteins
are made up of hundreds or thousands of smaller units
called amino acids, which are attached to one another in
long chains.
provide structure and support for cells.
vitamins
an organic molecule (or related set of molecules) which is
an essential micronutrient, that an organism needs in
small quantities for the proper functioning of
its metabolism. Essential nutrients cannot
be synthesized in the organism, either at all or not in
sufficient quantities, and therefore must be obtained
through the diet.
Vitamins
have diverse biochemical functions.
Some forms of vitamin A function as regulators of cell and
tissue growth and differentiation. The B complex vitamins
function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or
the precursors for them. Vitamin D has a hormone-like
function as a regulator of mineral metabolism for bones and
other organs. Vitamins C and E function as antioxidants. Both
deficient and excess intake of a vitamin can potentially cause
clinically significant illness; although excess intake of water-
soluble vitamins is less likely to do so.
Minerals
Are inorganic substances that plants absorb from the soil. They
are present in both plant foods and animal foods since animal
obtain them by eating plants.
Disorders
Inflammatory or Inflammatory
Inflammatory Disorders
APPENDICITIS
is an acute inflammation of
the appendix. First
symptoms include referred
pain in the umbilical region
and nausea. Later, pain is
localized in the right lower
quadrant of the abdomen.
Surgical removal of the
appendix is the standard
treatment.
COLITIS
is the inflammation of the
mucosa of the large
intestine. The cause is
unclear, but chronic stress
may contribute to this
condition.
Diarrhea and cramps are
typical symptoms.
DIVERTICULITIS
is a disorder of the large
intestine. Diverticulitis is
the inflammation of these
diverticula, and it may
cause considerable pain,
bloating or diarrhea.
HEMORRHOIDS
is a condition where one or
more veins in the anal canal
become enlarge and
inflamed. Chronic
constipation contributes to
the development of
haemorrhoids.
HEPATITIS
is inflammation of the
liver, and it may be
caused by several
factors, including
viruses, drugs, or
alcohol. It is
characterized by
jaundice, fever, and
liver enlargement.
THERE ARE THREE BASIC TYPES OF HEPATITIS: