•Radiographic sensitivity is the general

term used to describe the smallest detail

that can be seen using a radiograph.
• There are two independent sets of
factors that determine the level of
radiographic sensitivity, definition and
contrast.
Definition refers to the sharpness of the outline in
the image. This sharpness depends on the type of
screens and film used. The sharpness of the outline
also depends on the radiation energy used, the
geometry of the radiographic specimen and the spot
size of the radiation source.
Radiographic contrast is the difference
between the areas of radiographic density. This
difference in the density depends on two factors,
subject contrast and film contrast.
.
Subject contrast is the ratio of X-ray intensities
transmitted through two or more portions of different
thickness in a specimen.
Film contrast refers to the slope of the characteristic
curve of the film. This contrast depends on three factors,
the type of film being used, the density of the film, and the
way the film is processed.
Film grains are the materials that capture the image,
which after development becomes a radiograph. Film
grains are made-up of extremely fine silver bromide
crystals. There can be billions of grains in one square
centimeter. The larger the grain size the faster the film.
Sensitometric charts are comprised of a group of
curves representing the relative sensitivity of various X-ray
films to exposure. The curves are a plot of the film density
versus the logarithm of the relative exposure they must
receive to reach a particular density.
Relative exposure means that one of the curves is
used as the standard and all other curves are related
to this curve by a factor.
The charts are used to make comparisons
between various films and to make exposure
and density calculations when changing from
one film to another.
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• Kilovoltage is a measure of the electrical
potential between the anode and the cathode in the
X-ray tube.
• The higher the kilovoltage, the shorter the
wavelength and the greater the penetrating power of
the X-rays produced.
• The X- rays must have enough energy to penetrate
through the material being inspected. The
kilovoltage should be chosen carefully because:
• 1. scatter increases as the energy increases
scatter increases
• 2. contrast sensitivity decreases as energy
increases
• Latitude refers to the amount of thickness
variation that a particular film will be able to
image in one exposure.
• As latitude increases contrast will diminish, and
vice versa.
• Half Value Layer is the thickness of a given
material that will reduce the radiation passing
through it by one half. The energy of the ray, and
the atomic make-up of the material determine
half value layers.
• As kilovoltage increases the half value
layer will increases.
• Milliamperage is a term used to describe the
amount of radiation produced by the X-ray
system. The milliamperage is actually the units
of the electrical current that is used to produce
the radiation.
• Milliamp-minutes (mAm) are the product of the
amount of milliamps and the amount of time
used to make the exposure. Since the exposure
time is directly tied to the amount of current used
(i.e. the more current used, the less time needed
to make an exposure), it is convenient to note
the product of these two value rather that the
two individual values.
• There is roughly a one-to-one direct
relationship between a milliamperage or
time change and the resulting change in
image density. If time is held constant and
only the milliamperage is varied, the
following equation can be used.
M1/M2 =D1/D2
• Where: M1 = Milliamp original
• M2 = Milliamp new
• D1 = Film density original
• D2 = Film density new
• Densitometer is an instrument for measuring
photographic densities.
• X-Ray Exposure Chart is a chart that shows the
relationship between material thickness, kilovoltage, and
exposure time.
• Film Development is the process used to turn a
latent image into a viewable radiograph. Processing
variables such as manual or automatic processing, time
and temperature will affect the final radiograph and the
outcome of the exposure chart.
• Film Speed is a system used to classify the relative
exposure times needed to expose various films. The film
speed is dependant on the grain size of the film and the
larger the film grain size, the less exposure time required to
produce a certain density of the processed film.
Radiography
• Time-Distance Relationship: is the
dependence between the time required for a
specific exposure and the source-to-film
distance.
• The exposure time is indirectly
proportional to the square of source-to-
film distance.
• Geometric unsharpness When the object
being radiographed is placed in direct
contact with the film, the following
equation can be used to calculate the
amount of geometric unsharpness in a
radiograph.
• Ug = ft/d where
f = X-ray source focal-spot size.
t = distance from the source side of part to
the film surface.
d = distance from the source to the near
surface of the part.
 ASME V Backscatter Radiation
• A lead symbol “B,” with minimum dimensions of
13 mm in height and 1.5 mm in thickness,
shall be attached to the back of each film holder
during each exposure to determine if
backscatter radiation is exposing the film.
Excessive Backscatter
• If a light image of the “B,” , appears on a darker
background of the radiograph, protection from
backscatter is insufficient and the radiograph
shall be considered unacceptable.
A dark image of the “B” on a lighter
• background is not cause for rejection.
System of Identification
• A system shall be used to produce
permanent identification on the radiograph
traceable to the contract, component, weld
or part numbers, as appropriate.
• In addition, the Manufacturer’s name and
the date of the radiograph shall be plainly
and permanently included on the
radiograph.
 Intensifying Screens
• Intensifying screens may be used when
performing radiographic examination
Image Quality Indicator (IQI) Design
• Standard hole type or the wire type.
Monitoring Density Limitations of
Radiographs
• Either a densitometer or step wedge
comparison film shall be used for judging
film density.
 IQI Diameter in (mm)

Set B Set A
• 6 )0.25( 1 )0.08(
• 7 )0.33( 2 )0.10(
• 8 )0.41( 3 )0.13(
• 9 )0.51( 4 )0.16(
• 10 )0.64( 5 )0.20(
• 11 )0.81( 6 )0.25(
 Set D Set C

• 16 )2.54( 11 )0.81(
• 17 )3.20( 12 )1.02(
• 18 )4.06( 13 )1.27(
• 19 )5.08( 14 )1.60(
• 20 )6.35( 15 )2.03(
• 21 )8.13( 16 )2.54(
 Radiation Energy
• The radiation energy employed for any
radiographic technique shall achieve the
density and IQI image requirements.
Geometric Unsharpness Ug = Fd/D
• F source size
• D distance from source of radiation to
weld or object being radiographed
• d distance from source side of weld or
object being radiographed to the film
D and d shall be determined at the
approximate center of the area of interest.
• Geometric Unsharpness Limitations.
Recommended
• maximum values for geometric
unsharpness are as follows:

Material Ug
• Thickness, (mm) Maximum, (mm)
• Under (50) (0.50)
• (50) to (75) (0.76)
 Location Markers
• Location markers (lead letters and numbers) which are
to appear as radiographic images on the film, shall be
placed on the part, not on the exposure holder /cassette.
• Their locations shall be permanently marked on the
surface of the part being radiographed when permitted,
or on a map, in a manner permitting the area of interest
on a radiograph to be accurately traceable to its location
on the part, for the required retention period of the
radiograph.
• Coverage: Evidence also be provided on the
radiograph that the required coverage of the region
being examined has been obtained.
Radiography
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