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Wireless Communications
Week 3
3
Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be
achieved
For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit data
rate?
Channel Capacity
– the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over
a given communication path, or channel, under given
conditions
Unit?
4
Data rate
- rate at which data can be communicated (bps)
Bandwidth
- the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained
by the transmitter and the nature of the transmission
medium (Hertz)
Noise
- average level of noise over the communications path
Error rate
- rate at which errors occur
◦ Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
5
For binary signals (two voltage levels)
◦C = 2B
With multilevel signaling
◦C = 2B log2 M
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
6
LOG BASE 10 = COMMON LOG
LOG BASE 2
LOG BASE e = LOG BASE 2.7182818258 =
NATURAL LOG = ln
7
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise that’s present at a particular
point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
signal power
( SNR) dB 10 log 10
noise power
A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number
of required intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
8
SNR is the simple power ratio
SNR(dB) is SNR in decibels
SNR(dB) = 10 x log10SNR
SNR = 10SNR(dB)/10
9
Equation:
C B log 2 1 SNR
Represents theoretical maximum that can be
achieved
In practice, only much lower rates achieved
◦ Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
◦ Impulse noise is not accounted for
◦ Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted for
10
11
White Noise
◦ White noise is a random signal (or process) with a
flat power spectral density.
◦ In other words, the signal contains equal power
within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency.
◦ White noise draws its name from white light in
which the power spectral density of the light is
distributed over the visible band in such a way that
the eye's three color receptors (cones) are
approximately equally stimulated.
12
◦ White Noise ….
◦ An infinite-bandwidth white noise signal is purely
a theoretical construction.
◦ By having power at all frequencies, the total
power of such a signal is infinite and therefore
impossible to generate.
◦ In practice, however, a signal can be "white" with
a flat spectrum over a defined frequency band.
13
Thermal Noise
◦ Thermal noise is approximately white, meaning that
the power spectral density is nearly equal throughout
the frequency spectrum
◦ Additionally, the amplitude of the signal has very
nearly a Gaussian probability density function.
14
Impulse Noise
◦ Impulse noise is a category of (acoustic) noise
which includes unwanted, almost instantaneous
(thus impulse-like) sharp sounds (like clicks and
pops).
◦ Noises of the kind are usually caused by
electromagnetic interference, scratches on the
recording disks, and bad synchronization in
digital recording and communication.
◦ High levels of such a noise ( 200+ Decibels ) may
damage internal organs, while 180 Decibels are
enough to destroy or damage human ears.
15
Delay Distortion
All signal components are delayed when passing through
a device such as an amplifier or a loudspeaker. The signal
delay can be (and often is) different for different
frequencies.
The delay variation means that signals consisting of
different frequency components suffer delay (or time)
distortion.
A small delay variation is usually not a problem, but larger
delays can cause trouble such as poor fidelity and
intersymbol interference.
High speed modems use adaptive equalizers to
compensate for group delay.
16
Attenuation Distortion
is the distortion of an analog signal that occurs during
transmission when the transmission medium does not
have a flat frequency response across the bandwidth
of the medium or the frequency spectrum of the
signal.
Attenuation distortion occurs when some frequencies
are attenuated more than other frequencies.
When an analog signal of constant amplitude across
its frequency spectrum suffers attenuation distortion,
some frequencies of the received signal arrive being
greater in amplitude (louder), relative to other
frequencies.
17
Power (dB Watts) = 10 log (P2/P1)
18
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that
indicates the ratio of a physical quantity (usually
power or intensity) relative to a specified or
implied reference level.
A ratio in decibels is ten times the logarithm to
base 10 of the ratio of two power quantities.
Being a ratio of two measurements of a physical
quantity in the same units, it is a dimensionless
unit.
A decibel is one tenth of a bel, a seldom-used
unit.
19
An example scale showing
x and 10 log x.
It is easier to grasp and compare
2 or 3 digit numbers than to
compare up to 10 digits.
20
Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and 4 MHz ;
SNRdB = 24 dB .. Channel Capacity?
C=?
C = B log2 (1+SNR)
How many signaling levels are required?
C = 2B log2 M
21
Spectrum of a channel between 3MHz and 4MHz ; SNRdB =
24 dB .. Channel Capacity?
B 4 MHz 3 MHz 1 MHz
SNR dB 24 dB 10 log 10 SNR
SNR 251
Using Shannon’s formula
22
How many signaling levels are required?
C 2 B log 2 M
6
8 10 2 10 log 2 M
6
4 log 2 M
M 16
23
log2(1) = 0
log2(2) = 1
log2(3) = 1.584962500721156
log2(4) = 2
log2(5) = 2.321928094887362
log2(6) = 2.584962500721156
log2(7) = 2.807354922057604
log2(8) = 3
log2(9) = 3.169925001442312
log2(10) = 3.321928094887362
24
Note that log2(x) is defined for any x greater
than zero.
If you have a calculator that computes the
natural logarithm (often denoted ln),
then you can calculate
log2(A) = ln(A) /ln(2) .
ln(2) = 0.693147..
The same thing works with log base 10, i.e.
log2(A) = log10(A)/log10(2).
log102 = 0.30103
25
Nyquist analyzed the theoretical capacity of a
noiseless channel; therefore, in that case, the
signaling rate is limited solely by channel
bandwidth.
Shannon addressed the question of what
signaling rate can be achieved over a channel
with a given bandwidth, a given signal power,
and in the presence of noise.
26
Transmission Medium
◦ Physical path between transmitter and receiver
Guided Media
◦ Waves are guided along a solid medium
◦ E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
Unguided Media
◦ Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
◦ Usually referred to as wireless transmission
◦ E.g., atmosphere, outer space
27
Air, space, water
No guiding wire or cable …hence wire-less
Transmission and reception are achieved by means of
an antenna
Configurations for wireless transmission
◦ Directional
◦ Omnidirectional
28
Radio frequency range
◦ 30 KHz to 1 GHz
◦ Suitable for omnidirectional applications
Microwave frequency range
◦ 1 GHz to 40 GHz
◦ Directional beams possible
◦ Suitable for point-to-point transmission
◦ Used for satellite communications
Infrared frequency range
◦ Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
◦ Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within
confined areas
29
Date ?
15 minutes
Syllabus: up to week 2
30
Guest Lecture
By Mr Shabbir Khan (from USA)
16th October 2010
His website www.storagetree.com
On UMT IEEE Student website
31
Description of common microwave antenna
◦ Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
◦ Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
◦ Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna
◦ Located at substantial heights above ground level
Applications
◦ Long haul telecommunications service
◦ Short point-to-point links between buildings
32
Description of communication satellite
◦ Microwave relay station
◦ Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
◦ Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink)
Applications
◦ Television distribution
◦ Long-distance telephone transmission
◦ Private business networks
33
Description of broadcast radio antennas
◦ Omnidirectional
◦ Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
◦ Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise alignment
Applications
◦ Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
34
Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds
capacity required for transmission of a single signal
Multiplexing
- carrying multiple signals on a single medium
◦ More efficient use of transmission medium
35
36
Cost per kbps of transmission facility declines with an
increase in the data rate
Cost of transmission and receiving equipment declines
with increased data rate
Most individual data communicating devices require
relatively modest data rate support
37
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
◦ Takes advantage of the fact that the useful bandwidth of the
medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given signal
Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
◦ Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable bit rate of the
medium exceeds the required data rate of a digital signal
38
39
40
KEY CONCEPTS
41
Q. Relationship between frequency and
wavelength of a sine wave?
A. The relationship is lf = v, where l is the
wavelength, f is the frequency, and v is the speed
at which the signal is traveling.
42
Q. What is the relationship between a signal’s
spectrum and its bandwidth?
A. The spectrum of a signal consists of the
frequencies it contains; the bandwidth of a
signal is the width of the spectrum.
43
Q. What is attenuation?
A. Attenuation is the gradual weakening of a
signal over distance.
44
Q. What key factors affect channel capacity?
A. Bandwidth, noise, and error rate affect
channel capacity
45
Q. Differentiate between guided media and
unguided media?
A. With guided media, the electromagnetic
waves are guided along an enclosed physical
path, whereas unguided media provide a
means for transmitting electromagnetic
waves through space, air, or water, but do
not guide them.
46
Q. Major advantages and disadvantages of
microwave transmission?
A. Point-to-point microwave transmission has a
high data rate and less attenuation than twisted
pair or coaxial cable. It is affected by rainfall,
however, especially above 10 GHz. It is also
requires line of sight and is subject to
interference from other microwave transmission,
which can be intense in some places.
47
Q. What is direct broadcast satellite (DBS)?
A. Direct broadcast transmission is a
technique in which satellite video signals are
transmitted directly to the home for
continuous operation.
48
Q. Why must a satellite have distinct uplink
and downlink frequencies?
A. A satellite must use different uplink and
downlink frequencies for continuous
operation in order to avoid interference.
49
Q. Indicate some differences between
broadcast radio and microwave?
A. Broadcast is omnidirectional, does not
require dish shaped antennas, and the
antennas do not have to be rigidly mounted
in precise alignment.
50
Q. Why is multiplexing so cost-effective?
A. Multiplexing is cost-effective because the
higher the data rate, the more cost-effective
the transmission facility.
51
Q. How is interference avoided by using
frequency division multiplexing?
A. Interference is avoided under frequency
division multiplexing by the use of guard
bands, which are unused portions of the
frequency spectrum between subchannels.
52
Q. Explain how synchronous time division
multiplexing (TDM) works?
A. A synchronous time division multiplexer
interleaves bits from each signal and takes
turns transmitting bits from each of the
signals in a round-robin fashion.
53
SELECTED END PROBLEMS
54
What is the channel capacity for a teleprinter
channel with
a 300-Hz bandwidth and
an SNR of 3 dB?
55
Using Shannon's equation:
C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
56
A digital signaling system is required to
operate at 9600 bps.
a. If a signal element encodes a 4-bit word,
what is the minimum required bandwidth of
the channel?
b. Repeat part (a) for the case of 8-bit words.
57
Using Nyquist's equation: C = 2B log2M
We have C = 9600 bps
a.
log2M = 4, because a signal element encodes
a 4-bit word
Therefore, C = 9600 = 2B x 4, and
B = 1200 Hz
58
Given the narrow (usable) audio bandwidth of
a telephone transmission facility, a nominal
SNR of 56dB (400,000), and a distortion level
of <0.2%
a. What is the theoretical maximum channel
capacity (kbps) of traditional telephone lines?
b. What is the actual maximum capacity?
59
a. Using Shannon’s formula:
C = 3000 log2 (1+400000) = 56 Kbps
b. Due to the fact there is a distortion
level (as well as other potentially detrimental
impacts to the rated capacity,) the actual
maximum will be somewhat degraded from
the theoretical maximum. A discussion of
these relevant impacts needs to be included
and a qualitative value discussed.
60
Given a channel with an intended capacity of
20 Mbps, the bandwidth of the channel is
3MHz.
What signal-to-noise ratio is required to
achieve this capacity?
61
C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
20 x 106 = 3 x 106 x log2(1 + SNR)
log2(1 + SNR) = 6.67
1 + SNR = 26.67 = 102
SNR = 101
62
If an amplifier has a 30dB voltage gain, what
voltage ratio does the gain represent?
SOL
For a voltage ratio, we have
NdB = 30 = 20 log(V2/V1)
63
If an amplifier has an output of 20W, what is
its output in dB ?
SOL:
64
Read all sections
Work out by hand all solved examples
Solve all in-chapter exercises
Write answers to review questions
Solve at least every fifth Problem [end of
chapter]
65