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1
Summary
2
Lecture Plan
Motivation
History of fingerprints
Fingerprint sensing
Fingerprint features
Fingerprint matching
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User Convenience
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Embedded Fingerprint Systems
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Applications
Security –authentication
Forensic sciences–individualization
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Applications
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Fingerprint Recognition
Motivation
History of fingerprints
Fingerprint sensing
Fingerprint features
Fingerprint matching
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History of fingerprints
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Archaelogical remains
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History of fingerprints
1750 B.C.- people in Babylon used
fingerprints to sign their identity on
clay tablets
300 B.C.-Emperors of China used
personalized clay seals
In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, an
anatomy professor at the University of
Bologna, wrote in a paper that
fingerprints contained ridges, spirals
and loops.
In 1856, Sir William Herschel, a British
Magistrate in Jungipoor, India, used
fingerprints (actually palmprints) to
certify native contracts.
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History of fingerprints
During the 1870s, Dr. Henry Faulds,
a British surgeon in Japan, after
noticing finger marks on ancient
pottery, studied fingerprints,
recognized the potential for
identification, and devised a method
for classifying fingerprint patterns.
15
History of fingerprints
1924-an act of U.S. Congress established the
Identification Division of the FBI (Federal Bureau
of Investigation) with a database of 810 000
fingerprint cards
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Classification: Manual Card Files
Manual fingerprint card files were usually organized by a
pattern. Classification system based on combination of
the patterns on each of the ten fingers of individuals.
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Classification: Manual Card Files
In the Henry classification system, numerical weights are
assigned to fingers with a whorl pattern. A bin number,
based on the sum of the weights for the right hand and
sum of the weights for the left hand is computed to
generate 1,024 possible bins. Letter symbols are
assigned to fingers: capital letters to the index fingers
and lower-case letters to other fingers.
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Fingerprint Recognition
Motivation
History of fingerprints
Fingerprint sensing
Fingerprint features
Fingerprint matching
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Fingerprints
Fingerprints are "permanent" in that they are
formed in the fetal stage and remain throughout
the life time.
The changes can be due to: skin flexibility, growing,
scarring, a wound, etc.
They are only weakly determined by genetics, e.g.
identical (monozygotic, one egg) twins (the same
DNA) have fingerprints that are quite different
Fingerprints of an individual are “unique”
The right definition of a fingerprint originates from
the print (stamp) that finger left on an object.
23
Matching
Fingerprint matching prior to automation involved the
manual examination of the so-called Galton details (ridge
endings, bifurcations, lakes, islands, pores etc.
collectively known as "minutiae").
24
Early Automation Efforts
US NBS/NIST Research: In the mid-1960s, the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
initiated several research projects to automate the
fingerprint identification process. The efforts were
supported by the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) as part of an initiative to automate many of the
processes in the Bureau.
The efforts put into AFIS interoperability by NIST under the FBI sponsorship
resulted in an ANSI/NIST standard for data interchange. This standard was
initially crafted in mid-1980, is updated every 5 years and defines data
formats for images, features and text.
Outside North America, under the auspices of the Interpol AFIS Expert
Working Group (IAEG), there is a similar effort toward interchange
standardization following the basic format of the ANSI/NIST standard.
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Civil & Commercial Applications
Civil:
Commercial:
Miniaturized Sensors
Personal Access Protection
Banking Security
Business-to-Business Transactions
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Scanning and Digitizing
The FBI initiated a research program to build an engineering
model of a scanner that could sample an object area of 1.5 X
1.5 in at 500 pixels per inch (DPI), with an effective sampling
spot size of 0.0015 in, signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) in excess of
100:1 and digitized to at least 6 bits (64 gray levels).
In the late 1960s, these requirements could only be met by a
system that used a cathode ray tube and a precision
deflection system, an array of tubes that measure and
reflected light, and amplifier-digitizer to convert the electrical
signal into a digital value for each pixel.
There were relatively few scanning devices by the late 1970s
that met the technical characteristics requirements of 500
dpi, a 0.0015 inch effective sample size, greater than 100
S/N noise ratio and a 6 bit dynamic range.
It ten more years the scan quality standards were set by
IAFIS, which is the current benchmark for scanning of
fingerprint images, requiring 200 or more gray levels. 29
Scanning and Digitizing
Today, there are reasonably priced scanners that are
capable of scanning a 1.5 X 1.5 inch fingerprint area at
1,000 (or more) DPI with a digitizing range of 10 or 12
bits, S/N ratio in excess of 100:1. Most of the fingerprint
input devices now used in both criminal and civil
fingerprint systems directly scan the fingerprint from the
finger. These are "live-scan" capture devices.
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Characteristics of Fingerprint Images
Resolution: This indicates the number of dots or pixels per inch (dpi).
Area: The size of the rectangular area sensed by a fingerprint scanner is a
fundamental parameter. The larger the area, the more ridges and valleys
are captured and the more distinctive the fingerprint becomes.
Number of Pixels: This can be derived from the resolution and the
fingerprint area. A scanner working at r dpi over an area of height (h) X
width (w) inch2 has rh X rw pixels.
Dynamic range (or depth): This denotes the number of bits used to
encode the intensity value of each pixel.
Geometric accuracy: This is specified by the maximum geometric
distortion introduced by the acquisition device, and expressed as a
percentage with respect to x and y directions.
Image quality: The image quality depends on the quality of scanner and
also on the intrinsic finger status. When the ridge prominence is very low
(for manual workers, elderly people), or fingers are too moist or too dry,
most scanners produce poor quality images.
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Scanning and Digitizing
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Fingerprint images
Frames per second: This is the number of images the scanner is able to acquire
and send to the host in a second.
Encryption: This is the securing of the communication channel between the scanner
and the host.
35
Fingerprint Sensing
Optical sensors
• Frustrated Total Internal Reflection (FTIR)
• FTIR with a sheet prism
• Optical fibers
• Electro-Optical
Solid-state sensors
• Thermal
• Electric field
• Piezoelectric
Ultrasound sensors
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Fingerprint Sensing: optical FTIR
Frustered Total Internal Reflection
(FTIR):
The oldest and most used livescan
technique. The finger touches the top
side of a glass prism, but while the
ridges enter in contact with the prism
surface, the valleys remain at a certain
distance. The left side of the prism is
illuminated through a diffused light
which is reflected at the valleys and
randomly scattered (absorbed) at the
ridges. The lack of reflection allows the
ridges (appear dark) to be
discriminated from the valleys (appear
bright). The light rays exit from the
right side of the prism and are focused
through a lens onto a CCD or CMOS
image sensor. Because FTIR devises
sense a 3D surface, they cannot be
easily deceived by a photograph or
printed image of a fingerprint.
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Fingerprint Sensing: FTIR with a sheet
prism
FTIR with a sheet prism: Using a sheet prism made of a number of
“prismlets” adjacent to each other, instead of a single large prism, allows
the size of the mechanical assembly to be reduced to some extent.
However, the quality of the acquired images is generally lower than the
traditional FTIR techniques using glass prisms.
38
Optical Fibers
A significant reduction of the packaging size can be achieved by substituting
prism and lens with a fiber-optic platen. The finger is in direct contact with
the upper side of the platen; on the opposite side, a CCD or CMOS, tightly
coupled with the platen, receives the finger residual light conveyed through
the glass fibers. Unlike the FTIR devices, the CCD/CMOS is in direct contact
with the platen and therefore its size has to cover the whole sensing area.
This may result in a high cost for producing large area sensors.
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Electro-Optical
40
Optical Sensors
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Solid State Sensing
Thermal: These sensors are made of pyro-electric material that generates
current based on temperature differentials. The fingerprint ridges,
being in contact with the sensor surface, produce a different
temperature differential than the valleys, which are away from the
sensor surface. The sensors are typically maintained at a high
temperatures.
43
Fingerprint Sensing: sweep systems
Sweep systems
Touch systems
44
Image reconstruction from slices
The touch method is most commonly used with sensors wherein the
finger is simply put on the scanner, without moving it.
To reduce costs, especially in silicon sensors, another sensing method
has been proposed: to sweep the finger over the sensor. Since the
sweeping consists of a vertical movement only, the chip must be as
wide as a finger; on the other hand, in principle, the height could be
as low as one pixel. At the end of the sweep, a single fingerprint
image is reconstructed from the slices.
45
Image reconstruction from slices
The sweep method allows the cost of a sensor to be significantly reduced, but requires
reliable reconstruction to be performed. The main stages of the reconstruction are:
Slice quality computation: For each slice, a single global quality measure and
several local measures are compared by using an image contrast estimator.
Slice pair registration: For each pair of consecutive slices, the only possible
transformation is assumed to be a global translation [∆x, ∆y], where the ∆y
component is dominant, but a limited ∆x is also allowed to cope with lateral
movements of the finger during sweeping.
Relaxation: When the quality of slices is low, the registration may fail and give
incorrect translation vectors. Assuming a certain continuity of the finger speed during
sweeping allows analogous hypotheses to be generated on the continuity of the
translation vectors. The translation vectors’ continuity may be obtained through a
method called relaxation which has the nice property of smoothing the samples
without affecting the correct measurements too much.
Mosaicking: The enhanced translation vectors produced by the relaxation stage are
used to register and superimpose the slices. Finally, each pixel of the reconstructed
output image is generated by performing a weighted sum of the intensities of the
corresponding pixels in the slices.
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Image reconstruction from slices
47
Sensing Area vs. Accuracy
The cost of a sensor increases with increase in size of sensing area.
With smaller areas, the identification accuracy may deteriorate.
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Quality of images
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Different scanners – ideal conditions
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Different scanners – bad conditions
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Compressing Fingerprint Images
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Compressing Fingerprint Images
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Fingerprint Recognition
Motivation
History of fingerprints
Fingerprint sensing
Fingerprint features
Fingerprint matching
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Fingerprint verification and
identification
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Coarse representation –Level 1
features
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Coarse representation –Level 1
features
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Minutiae –Level 2 features
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Minutia –Level 2 features
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Level 3 features
Sweat pores
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Level 3 features
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Minutiae Detection
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Orientation image of
fingerprint
Computation of gradients over a square-meshed grid of
size 16 x 16; the element length is proportional to its
reliability.
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Orientation image of
fingerprint
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Frequency image
Ridge frequency: inverse of the average distance
between 2 consecutive peaks
67
Segmentation
Segmentation is the process of isolating foreground
from background:
Image block (16x16 pixels) decomposition
Thresholding using variance of gradient for each block
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Why do we need enhancement?
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Why do we need enhancement?
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Need for Enhancement
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Enhancement
Initial enhancement may
involve the normalization of
the inherent intensity
variation in a digitized
fingerprint caused either by
(a) An inked fingerprint image
the inking or the live-scan
(b) The results of the LACE algorithm
device. on (a)
One such process - local area
contrast enhancement (LACE)
is useful to provide such
normalization through the
scaling of local neighborhood Histograms of fingerprint images in
pixels in relation to a (a) and (b) above.
calculated global mean.
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Enhancement
Another type of enhancement is contextual filtering that:
1. Provide a low-pass (averaging) effect along the ridge direction with the aim
of linking small gaps and filling impurities due to pores or noise.
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Enhancement
74
Enhancement
The simplest and most natural approach for extracting
the local ridge orientation field image, D, containing
elements θij, in a fingerprint image is based on the
computation of gradients in the fingerprint image. The
gradient delta(xi, yj) at point [xi, yj] of fingerprint image
I, is a two-dimensional vector
[deltax(xi, yj), deltay(xi, yj)], where deltax and deltay
components are the derivatives of I in [xi, yj] with
respect to x and y directions respectively.
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Enhancement
The local ridge frequency (or density) fxy at point [x, y] is
the inverse of the number of ridges per unit length along
a hypothetical segment centered at [x, y] and orthogonal
to the local ridge orientation θxy. A frequency image F,
analogous to the orientation image D, can be defined if
the frequency is estimated at discrete positions and
arranged into a matrix. The local ridge frequency varies
across different fingers, and even regions. The ridge
pattern can be locally modeled as a sinusoidal-shaped
surface and the variation theorem can be exploited to
estimate the unknown frequency. 76
Enhancement
The variation of the function h in the interval [x1, x2] is the sum of
the amplitudes α1, α2, … α8. If the function is periodic or the function
amplitude does not change significantly within the interval of
interest, the average amplitude αm can be used to approximate the
individual α. Then the variation can be expressed as 2αm multiplied
by the number of periods of the function over the interval.
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Gabor filters
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Enhancement Results
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Artifacts
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Post-processing
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Extraction of minutiae
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Feature extraction errors
The feature extraction algorithms are imperfect and often
introduce measurement errors
Errors may be made during any of the feature extraction
stages, e.g., estimation of orientation and frequency images,
detection of the number, type, and position of the singularities
and minutiae, segmentation of the fingerprint area from
background, etc.
Aggressive enhancement algorithms may introduce
inconsistent biases that perturb the location and orientation of
the reported minutiae from their gray-scale counterparts
In low-quality fingerprint images, the minutiae extraction
process may introduce a large number of spurious minutiae
and may not be able to detect all the true minutiae
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Fingerprint Recognition
84
Intra-variability
Matching fingerprint images is an extremely difficult
problem, mainly due to the large variability in different
impressions of the same finger (intra-variability). The
main factors are:
Displacement (global translation of the fingerprint area)
Rotation
Partial overlap
Non-linear distortion:
the act of sensing maps the three-dimensional shape of a finger
onto the two-dimensional surface of the sensor
skin elasticity
Pressure and skin condition
Noise: introduced by the fingerprint sensing system
Feature extraction errors
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Matching illustration
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Matching illustration
An example of matching the search minutiae set in (a) with the file
minutiae set in (b) is shown in (c). 87
Difficulty in fingerprint
matching
Small overlap
Non-linear distortion
Different skin
conditions
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Finger placement
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Non-linear distortion
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Non-linear distortion
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Fingerprint Matching
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Local minutiae matching
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Minutiae correspondence
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Pre-alignment
Absolute pre-alignment
The most common absolute pre-alignment technique
translates and rotates the fingerprint according to the
position of the core point and the delta point (if a
delta exists)
Relative pre-alignment
By superimposing the singularities
By correlating the orientation images
By correlating ridge features (e.g. length and
orientation of the ridges)
95
Fingerprint matching with absolute
pre-alignment
First align the fingerprints Input image Template image
using the global structure.
Extract the core-points
(prominent symmetry points)
to estimate the transformation
parameters v, ϕ (v from the
difference in their position,
and ϕ from the difference in
their angle) by complex
filtering of the smoothed
orientation field.
Then use the local structure
for ”point-to-point” matching.
96
Minutiae matching with
relative pre-alignment
Pre-alignment based on
the minutiae marked
with circles and the
associated ridges
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Ridge count
98
Triangular matching
99
Correlation based matching
Most frequently
used features for
fingerprint
matching:
Orientation image
Singular points
(loop and delta)
Ridge line flow
Gabor filter
responses
101
Comparison of Biometric
Technologies
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Fingerprint Recognition
Strengths Weaknesses
It is a mature and proven Most devices are unable to
core technology, capable of enroll some small
high levels of accuracy percentage of users
It can be deployed in a Performance can
range of environments deteriorate over time
It employs ergonomic, It is associated with
easy-to-use devices forensic applications
The ability to enroll
multiple fingers can
increase system accuracy
and flexibility
103
References and Links
Signal Processing Institute, Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology
http://scgwww.epfl.ch/
Biometric Systems Lab, University of
Bologna
http://bias.csr.unibo.it/research/biolab/
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