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I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the project report entitled “design of
road pavement” by “Vivek Singh” in partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of degree
of B.TECH. (Civil Engineering) submitted in the Department of CE at “RIMT-MAEC” under
Punjab technical University, Jalandhar is an authentic record of my own work carried out during
a period from--------------- to ------------ under the supervision of Er. Narinder Singh.
Signature of a student.
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my/our
knowledge.
Signature of Supervisor.
The B.TECH viva-voce examination of (Rishikesh Kumar) has been held on------------ and
accepted.
Signature of Supervisor.
Signature of H.O.D.
We are expressing our deep sense of gratitude to our respected H.O.D Prof. D.K.Dua,
Department of Civil Engineering and our guide Er. Narinder Singh for their constant guidance,
innovative, suggestion, and warm encouragement throughout the programme and preparation of
this project.
We thank profusely that faculty member for their help and suggestions given during course of
program. We are thankful to one and all, which help directly or indirectly in completing this
project report.
We learnt more from this project and build on our carrier to success.
(Vivek Singh)
The transportation by road is the only road which gives maximum service to one and all. This
mode had also the maximum flexibility for travel and with reference to route, direction, time
and speed of travel. It is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport.
Concrete pavement a larger number of advantages such as a long life span negligible
maintenance, user and environmental friendly and lower-cost. Keeping in this view the whole
life-cycle cost analysis for the black topping and which topping have been done based on
various condition such as type of laying as single lane, two lane, four lane different traffic
namely deterioration of road three categories.
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials
above the natural soil subgrade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle
loads to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of acceptable
riding quality, adequate skid resistance, Favourable light reflecting characteristic, and low noise
pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are
Suffice, Nightly reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub low grade.
Two types of pavements are generally recognised as serving this purpose, namely flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. This gives an overview on pavement types, layers and their
function cost analysis.
Various grades of concrete under a similar condition of traffic and design concrete road are
found to more suitable than bituminous road. Since the whole life-cycle cost comes out to be
lower in the range of 30% to 50% but for road having traffic less than 400cv/day and the road
is in good condition, the difference between whole Life Cost of the road is very less. The initial
cost of concrete overlay is 15% to 60% more than flexible overlay.
To design the road is stretch as a flexible pavement by using different flexible methods like
group index method, C.B.R. method as per IRC: 37 – 2001, Triaxial method, California
resistance value method, and as a rigid pavement as per IRC: for the collected design upon a
given black cotton soil subgrade and to estimates the construction cost of designed pavement
by each method. To propose a suitable or best methods to a given condition or problem.
The main objective of this study is to develop a strategy to select the most cost if efficient
pavement design method to carry out for a sections of a highway network and also to identify
the cost analysis of different pavement design method.
This section sets out the guideline for design of road pavement to meet the required design life,
based on the subgrade strength, traffic loading and environmental factors, and including the
selection of appropriate materials for subgrade, sub base, base and wearing surface.
The guideline contains procedures for the design of the following forms of surfaced road
pavement construction:
a) Flexible pavements consisting of unbound materials;
b) Flexible pavements that contain one or more bond layers, including pavements
containing asphalt layers other than thin asphalt wearing surface;
c) Rigid pavements (i.e. cement concrete pavements);
d) Concrete or clay segmental pavements
1. Pavement 6
Types Of Pavement 6
Pavement Materials 7
2. Flexible Pavement 8
Types Of Flexible Pavement 9
Layers Of Pavement 10
Failure Of Flexible Pavement 12
3. Rigid pavement 13
Type Of Rigid Pavement 14
Failure Of Rigid Pavement 14
Joints In Rigid Pavement 15
4. Test On Aggregate And Bitumen 17
I. CBR Test 18
II. Impact Test 26
III. Crushing Strength Test 29
IV. Penetration Test 32
V. Los Ageless Abrasion Test Of Aggregate 34
VI. Flash And Fire Point Of Bitumen 36
VII. Softening Point Of Bitumen 38
5. Comparison Between Flexible And Rigid Pavement 41
6. Role Of The Stabilisation On Pavement Design 42
Lime Stabilisation 42
Cementatious Stabilisation 42
7. Design And Cost Analysis Of Pavement 44
Design Of Flexible Pavement By Group Index Method 44
California Resistance Value Method 45
Design of flexible pavement by CBR data 46
8. Conclusion 48
9. Bibliography 49
1. PAVEMENT
TYPES OF PAVEMENT
Flexible - Pavements with a bitumen bonded surfacing and the road base.
Flexible composite - The surfacing and upper road base our bituminous on a lower road
base of cement bonded material.
Rigid - Pavements with a concrete surface slab which can be unreinforced, joint reinforced
or continuously reinforced.
PAVEMENT MATERIAL
• GRAVEL:-
These are coarse materials with particle size under 2.36 mm with little or no
fines contributing to cohesion of materials.
• MOORUM:-
These are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement
rock.
• SILTS:-
These are finer than sand, brighter in colour as compared to clay, and exhibit
little cohesion. When a lump of silty soil mixed with water, alternately squeezed and
tapped Shiny surface makes its appearance, thus dilatency is a specific property of soil.
• CLAYS:-
These are finer than silts. Clayey soils exhibit stickiness, high strength when
dry and show no dialtency. Black cotton soil and other expensive clay exhibit swelling and
shrinkage properties. Paste of clay with water when rubbed in between fingers leaves
strain, which is not observed for silts.
Flexible pavement will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain to grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load acting on the
pavement will be distributed to the wider area, and the stress decreases with the depth. Taking
advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has many
layers. Hence the design of flexible payment uses the concept of layered system. Based on this,
flexible pavement may be constructed in the number of layers and the top layer has to be of the
best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower
layer will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used.
Flexible payments are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the form
of surface treatment (such as bituminous surface treatment generally found on the low volume
road is available) or, asphalt concrete surface courses, flexible payment layer reflect the
deformation of lower layer on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub grade
then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible payment, the design is
based on overall performance of flexible payment, and the stresses produced should be keep
well below the allowable stresses of each payment layer.
• SEALCOAT:-
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to waterproof the surface and to
provide skid resistance.
• TACK COAT:-
Tack coat is very light application of the asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water, it provide a bonding between two layer of binder course and must
be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very fast.
• PRIME COAT:-
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an
absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provide bonding
between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrate into the layer below plugs and voids,
and forms a watertight surface.
• SURFACE COURSE:-
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads
and are generally contains superior quality materials. They are is usually constructed with
dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The function and the requirements of layer are:
It provides characteristic such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. it will prevent the
entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub bass and
subgrade.
It must be waterproof to protect the entire base and subgrade from the weaking effect of water.
• BINDER COURSE:-
This layer provides the bulk of asphalt concrete structure. it’s chief
purpose is to distribute load to the base course the binder course is generally consist of
aggregate having layers asphalt and they do not require quality as high as the surface course, so
replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course results in the more economical
design.
• BASE COURSE:-
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the
surface of binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contribute to the
subsurface drainage it may be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or
a stabilised materials
• SUBGRADE:-
The topsoil or subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the
stresses from the layer above. It is essential that at no time soil subgrade is overstressed. It
would be contacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.
The major flexible payment failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and the thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible payment is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetition to the
tensile strain and the relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test asphaltic concrete
specimen. Rutting occurs only on flexible payment as indicated by the permanent information
of rut depth along the wheel load path. Two design method have been used to control rutting:
• FORMATION OF CRACKS:-
Rigid pavement are those which possess not worthy flexural strength or flexural rigidity .The
stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as in the case of flexural
pavement layers. The rigid pavements are made of Portland cement concrete-either plain,
reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. The plain cement concrete slabs are expected to take-up
about 40kg/cm2. The rigid pavement has the slab action and is capable of transmitting the wheel
load stresses through a wider area below. The rigid pavement does not get deformed to the
shape of the lower surface as it can bridge the minor variations of lower layers. The cement
concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a wearing surface as well as effective base
course. Therefore usually the rigid pavement structure consist of a cement concrete slab, below
which a granular base or sub-base may be provided. The rigid pavements are usually designed
and the stresses are analysed using the elastic theory
RIGID PAVEMENT
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely
spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load
transfer across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement although reinforcements do not improve the structural
capacity significantly, they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars
are required for load transfer. Reinforcement’s help to keep the slab together even after cracks.
Fatigue cracking has long been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid pavement
design. The
Allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio
between flexural
Tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late, pumping is identified as an important
failure criterion.
Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete
pavement, caused during
The downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in
rigid pavements
Include faulting, spelling, and deterioration.
Joints are purposefully placed discontinuities in a rigid pavement surface course. The most
common types of pavement joints, defined by their function, are contraction, expansion,
isolation and construction.
A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete slab that creates a
weakened vertical plane. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by dimensional
changes in the slab. Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough surface
as well as water infiltration into the base, sub base and subgrade, which can enable other types
of pavement distress. Contraction joints are the most common type of joint in concrete
pavements, thus the generic term "joint" generally refers to a contraction joint.
• EXPANSION JOINTS:-
An expansion joint is placed at a specific location to allow the pavement to expand without
damaging adjacent structures or the pavement itself. However, expansion joint are not typically
used today because their progressive closure tends to cause contraction joints to progressively
open.
• CONSTRUCTION JOINTS:-
It is a joint between slabs that results when concrete is placed at different times. This type of
joint can be further broken down into transverse and longitudinal construction joints
longitudinal construction joints also allow slab warping without appreciable separation or
cracking of the slabs.
• STANDARD:-
IS: 2720(part 16) 1979.
• DEFINITION:-
California bearing ratio is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate in to a soil
mass with the circular plunger of 50 mm diameter at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute.
• APPARATUS:-
Mould 2250 cc capacity with base plate, stay rod and wing nut, confirming to 4.1, 4.3
and 4.4 of IS: 9669-1980.
coller confirming to 4.2 of IS: 9669- 1980.
Spacer disc confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669- 1980.
Metal rammer confirming to IS: 9189- 1979.
Expansion measuring apparatus with the adjustable steam, perforated plate, tripod
confirming and to weight confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669- 1980.
loading machine having a capacity of at least 5000 KG and equipped with a movable
head of the base that travel at uniform rate of 1.25 mm per minute for use in forcing the
penetration plunger into the specimen.
Dial gauge two number reading to 0.01mm.
IS Sieves 37.50 or 22.50 or 19mm and 4.75mm.
Miscellaneous apparatus such as mixing bowl, a straight edge, scale, soaking tank,
drying oven, filter paper, dishes and deliberated measuring jar.
• PROCEDURE:-
There are two type of methods in compacting soil specimen in the CBR moulds.
Static compaction method.
Dynamic compaction method.
The material used in the above two method shall pass 19mm sieve for fine grained soil and
37.50mm sieve for coarse material up to 37.50mm.
• STATIC COMPACTION:-
In this method calculate the mass of wet soil at required moisture content to give a desired
density when compacted in a standard test mould as given below.
df-ds
Expansion ratio = ----------- x 100
H
ds= Initial dial gauge reading in mm
After 96 hour of soaking take out the specimen from the water and remove the
extension Collar, perforated disc, surcharge weight and filter paper.
Drain off excess water by placing the mould inclined for about 15 minutes and weigh
the mould.
Place the mould on lower plate of testing machine with top face exposed to prevent
upheaval of soil in to the whole of surcharge weights, place 2.5 KG.
Annular weights on the soil surface prior to seating that penetration plunger after which
place the reminder of the surcharge weights.
Set the plunger under a load of 40 KG so that full contact is stabilised between the
surface of a specimen and the plunger.
Set the stress and strain gauges to zero.
Consider the initial load applied to the plunger as the zero load.
Applied the load at the rate of 1.25mm/min.
Take the reading of the Load at penetration of zero, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4, 5, 7.5,
10 and 12.5.
Raise the plunger and detach the mould from the loading equipment.
Collect a sample of about 20 to 50 gms of soil from the top 30 MM layer of a specimen
and determine the water content in accordance with IS: 2720 ( part 4 ) 1973.
Examine the specimen carefully after the test is completed for the presence of any
oversized soil particle, which are likely to affect the result if they happen to be located
directly below the penetration plunger.
Plot the load penetration curve in natural a scale, load on Y-axis and
If the curve is uniformly convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve may
be concave upwards due to surface irregularities may correction by drawing a tangent to
the upper curve at the point of contra flexure as below.
Take the intersection point of tangent and the X axis as an origin.
Calculate the CBR value for penetration of 2.50 MM and 5.00 MM.
Corresponding to the penetration value at which CBR is to be desired, take the
corrected load value from the load penetration curve and calculate the CBR from the
equation,
Where PT - corrected unit test load corresponding to chosen penetration from Load
penetration curve.
PS - total a standard load for the same depth of penetration, which can be taken from the
table below.
penetration depth (mm) Unit standard load kgf/cm2 Total standard load (kgf)
2.50 70 1370
• PRECAUTIONS:-
Clean the holes of base plate and that of perforated disc thoroughly.
Aligns the surcharge weight with the plunger so that the plunger penetrate freely into the
soil.
• INTRODUCTION:-
Toughness is the property of material to resist impact due to traffic
load, the road stone are subjected to the pounding action and impact and there is possibility
of stone breaking into a smaller pieces. The road stone should therefore be tough enough to
resist fracture under the impact’s test designed to evaluate the toughness of the stones i.e.,
the resistance of fracture under repeated impact may be called an impact test for road stones.
• OBJECT:
To determine the toughness of road stone material by impact test.
• PROCEDURE:-
The test sample consist of aggregates passing through 12.5 MM sieve and retained on 10 MM
sieve and dried in an oven for four hour at the temperature of 100°C to 110°C and cooled. Test
aggregate are filled up to about one third full in the St cylindrical measure and tamped 25 times
with the rounded of the tamping rod. Further quality of aggregate is then added up to 2/3 full in
the cylinder and 25 stocks of tamping rod are given. The measure is now filled with the
aggregate to overflow, tamped 25 times. The surplus aggregate are struck off using the tamping
rod as a straight edge. The net weight of aggregate in the measure is determined to the nearest
gram and this weight of aggregate is used for carrying out duplicate test on the same material.
The impact machine is placed with its bottom plate flat on the floor so that the hammer guide
columns and vertical. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the
whole of the test sample from the cylindrical measure is transferred to the cup and compacted
by tamping with 25 strokes.
The hammer is raised until its lower face is 380 MM above the upper surface of the aggregate
in the cup, and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate. The test sample is subjected to a total 15
blows, each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second. The crusted aggregate is
• CALCULATIOS:-
The aggregate impact value is expressed as percentage the fine formed in term of the total
weight of the sample.
• RESULTS:-
• LIMITS:-
10 to 20% as strong
• INTRODUCTION:-
The principal mechanical property in the road stones are Q satisfactory resistance to crushing
under the roller during construction and adequate resistance to surface of abrasion under traffic.
also surface a stress under rigid tyre rims of havlely loaded animal, drawn vehicle are high
enough to consider the crushing strength of road stones may be determined either on aggregates
are all cylindrical is specimen cut out of rocks. These two test are quite different in not only the
approach but also in the expression of I results.
Aggregate used in road construction, should be a strong enough to resist crushing under traffic
wheel thought load if aggregates are weak, the stability of the pavement structure is likely to be
adversely affected.
• APPARATUS:-
The apparatus for the standard aggregate crushing test consist of following:
1) Steel cylindrical with open ends, and internal diameter 25.2 cm, a square base plate plunger
having a piston of diameter - with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger. A rod
could be inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.
2) Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 0.5 cm and height 18 cm.
3) Steel temping load with one rounded end, having a diameter of 1 cm and length 45 to 60
cm.
4) Balance of capacity - KG with accuracy up to 1 g.
5) Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tons, at uniform rate of
loading of four tons per minute.
• PROCEDURE:-
The aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on 10 MM IS sieve selected for a
standard test.
The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing. The aggregate may be
dried by heating a temperature 100̊ C to 110°C for a period of four hour and is tested after
being cooled to room temperature.
The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of
approximately equal depth each layer being tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the
tamping rod. After the third layer is tamped .the aggregate at the top of the cylindrical
measure is a level off by using the tamping rod as a straight edge. About of aggregate is
required for preparing two test samples. The test sample thus taken is then weighed. The
amount weight of sample is taken in the repeat test.
• CALCULATIONS:-
Weight of aggregate = WA = W2 – W1
= 4745 – 1981 gm.
= 2764 gm.
Weight of aggregate passed from sieve 2.36 mm = Wb = 608 gm.
Crushing value of aggregate = Wb/Wa ×100
= 608/2764 ×100
• RESULTS:-
• INTRODUCTION:-
The consistency of bituminous materials varies depending upon
several factors such as constituents, temperature etc. The penetration test determines the
consistency of these materials for the purpose of grading them, by measuring its depth to which
standard needle is penetrate under specific condition of standard load, duration and
temperature. Thus the basic principal of the penetration test is the measurement of the
penetration of a standard needle in a bitumen sample maintained at 25c during five seconds, the
total weight of the needle assembly being 100g.
• APPARATUS:-
The apparatus for conducting penetration test on bitumen consist of
penetrometer, Container, Thermometer, controlled water bath, stop watch and transfer dish.
Standard Penetrometer
• PROCEDURE:-
The bitumen is heated to a pouring consistency, about 75̊C to 100̊C. above the
temperature at which bitumen softens.
The sample material is thoroughly stirred to make it homogeneous and free from air
bubbles and water.
The sample is then poured into the containers of 35mm depth.
The sample is then placed on transfer tray and cooled in atmosphere at temperature
between 15-30̊c for 60-90 minutes.
The sample is then placed in controlled water bath at a temperature of 25̊c for a period
of 60-90 minutes.
• OBSERVATION TABLE:-
• RESULTS:-
The difference between the initial and final penetration readings is taken as the
penetration value.
• INTRODUCTION:-
The principal of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action aggregate and steel ball used as abrasive charge the pounding action of these balls also
exists while conducting the test some investigator believes that this test to be more dependable
on rubbing and pounding action simulate the filled condition where both abrasion and impact
occur. Los Angeles abrasion test has been standardised by the ASTM, AAHO and also by the
• APPARATUS:-
The apparatus consist of hollow steel cylinder, enclose at both ends having are inside diameter
70 cm and inside length of 50 cm maintained and stuff about which it rotate on a horizontal
axis. An opening is provided in such a way that when closed and fixed bolt and nut. It is dust-
tight and the interior surface is preferably cylindrical. A removable steel shelf projecting
radially 8- 8 cm into the cylinder into the cylinder rigidly parallel to the axis. The self is fixed
at a distance of 125 cm from the opening measured along the circumference in the direction of
rotation. Abrasive charge consisting of cast iron sphere approximately 4.8 cm in the diameter
and 390 to 445 g in weight are used. The weight of sphere used as the abrasive charge and the
number of sphere to be used are a specified depending upon the grading of the aggregate tested.
The aggregate grading has been standardised as a, B, C, D, E, F, and G for this test and the IS a
specification for the grading and the abrasive charge to be used are in the given table IS sieve
with 1.70 MM opening is used for separating the finer after the abrasion test.
• PROCEDURE:-
Clean aggregate dried in an oven at 105°C to 110°C to constant weight. Confirming to anyone
of the grading as to go as per table is used for the test. The grading or gradation used in the
test should be nearest to the grading to be used in the construction. Aggregate weighing five
KG for grading a, B, C, D and 10 KG for grading E, F, or G may be taken as test a specimen
and placed in the cylinder. The abrasive charge is also chosen in accordance with the table.
Depending upon the grading of the aggregate and placed in the cylinder of machine. The
cover is then fixed in dust tight. The machine is rotated of speed of 32 t 33 roll per minute.
The machine rotated Fe 500 revolution for grading a, B, C, and d and for grading E, F, and G
• CALCULATION:-
The difference between the original and final weight of Sample expressed as a percentage of
original weight of the sample is reported as the percentage wear.
• RESULT:-
The result of the Los Angeles abrasion test is expressed as percentage WEAR and the average
value of two test may be adopted as the Los Angeles abrasion value. The abrasion value of
given aggregate sample is 21.3%
• INTRODUCTION:-
• APPARATUS:-
• THEORY:-
Bituminous material leave out volatiles at high temperatures depending upon their grade. These
volatile vapours catch fire causing a flash. The flash point is the lowest temperature at which
flash occurs due to ignition of volatile vapours when a small flame is brought in contact with
the vapours of a bituminous product, gradually heated under standardised condition. When
bituminous material is further heated to a higher temperature, the material itself catches and
continues to burn; the lowest temperature causing this is the fire point. Fire point is always
higher than flash point. The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which vapour
of a substance momentarily take fire in the form of flash.
The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under
specific conditions of test.
All parts of cup are cleaned and dried thoroughly. Material is filled into cup upto filling mark.
Lid is placed to close the cup in a closed system. All accessories including thermometer of
specified range are suitably fixed. Bitumen sample is then heated. Stirring is done at regular
intervals. The test flame is lit and applied at intervals depending upon expected flash and fire
point. First application is made at about 17°C below actual flash point and then at every 1°C.
Stirring is discontinued during the application of the test flame.
• RESULT:-
• RECOMMENDED VALUES:-
The minimum value of flash point by Pensky Martens closed type apparatus is 175°C for all
grades of bitumen.
• APPARATUS:-
(i) The ring and ball apparatus consisting of
(a) Steel balls-two numbers each of 9.5 mm diameter weighing 3.5 ± 0.05 g.
(b)Brass rings-two numbers each having depth of 6.4 mm. The inside diameter at bottom and
top is 15.9mm and 17.5 mm respectively.
(d)Support -that can hold rings in position and also allows for suspension of a thermometer.
The distance between the bottom of the rings and the top surface of the bottom plate of the
support is 25mm.
(iii) Stirrer
• PROCEDURE:-
(i)Preparation of test sample: Heat the material to a temperature between 75-100° C above its
softening point; stir until, it is completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water. If
necessary, filter it through IS sieve 30. Place the rings previously heated to a temperature
approximating to that of the molten material, on a metal plate which has been coated with a
mixture of equal parts of glycerine and dextrin. After cooling for 30 minutes in air, level the
material in the ring by removing the excess material with a warmed, sharp knife.
(ii) Assemble the apparatus with the rings; thermometer and ball guides in position
(iii)Fill the bath with distilled water to a height of 50mm above the upper surface of the rings.
The starting temperature should be 5° C.
Note: Use glycerine in place of water if the softening point is expected to be above 80° C; the
starting temperature may be kept 35° C.
(iv) Apply heat to the bath and stir the liquid so that the temperature rises at a uniform rate of 5
± 0.5 °C per minute.
(v)As the temperature increases the bituminous material softens and the balls sink through the
rings carrying a portion of the material with it.
(vi)Note the temperature when any of the steel balls with bituminous coating touches the
bottom plate.
(vii) Record the temperature when the second ball touches the bottom plate.
The average of the two readings to the nearest 0.5°C is reported as softening point.
• PRECAUTIONS:-
(ii) During the conduct of test the apparatus should not be subjected to vibrations. (iii)The bulb
• OBSERVATIONS:-
• RESULT:-
6. ROLE OF STABILISATION
Pavement materials include a combination of coarse and fine aggregate with a proportion of a
smaller clay/silt -sized particles. The objective is to ensure a final grading matrix that will allow
maximum compaction of the product with the least void present. This is to achieve a solid layer
that is in part impervious to water infiltration. Pavement materials can be used in different
layers of the pavement and requirement of such a layers will be determined by applied load and
payment compaction selected by designer.
High-performance quarried materials will likely be obtained from the nearest possible source in
order to minimise transport costs. Often, however, imported material may not be sufficiently
strong payment design requirements. in such cases, the solution is found in the design of either
stronger payment layers or a reduction in the stresses requirement for the layer.one of the most
cost effective ways to make the pavement stronger is to modify or a stabilised the pavement
material.as an alternative, it is possible to reduce the stress requirement by the stiffening for
foundation. Again, this can be done by either modifying are stabilising the foundation
• LIME STABILISATION
Lime stabilisation or modification is used in the road construction to improve the quality of
existing material within the construction project. Lime is an effective addictive for plastic soil,
improving both workability and a strength. Lime stabilisation can be used to:
modify marginal material to bring it within specification or for performance
requirement
increases strength as an alternative to cementetious stabilisation
enhance volumetric stability for various layers of select material
improve surface stability of unsealed road
• CEMENTITIOUS STABILISATION
When stabilising the cement, the working time of the resultant material can be critical. The time
available to deliver, incorporate and compact a pavement layer needs to be understood before
project commencement. With cement as the only binder, the time for performing placement and
compaction process is limited to approximately two-hour from the incorporate of the cement
into the moistened payment materials. No rework time is normal provided for. This can be
create a demanding schedule with little opportunity for error management on the site.
Cement as the only binder is not often used due to working time restrictions. In
addition, higher shrinkage rates can result in an increased cracking tendency. Addition of FA to
the binder extends the working life of the stabilised material, allows more time placement in
compaction of the material and mitigates risks typically associated with a single cement binder.
The structural capacity of flexible payment is attended by combined action of the different
layer of the payment. The load is directly applied on the wearing course and it gets dispread
with the depth in base, sub base and subgrade layers and then ultimately to the ground. Since
stress induced by traffic load is highest at the top, the quality of top and upper layer of material
is better. The subgrade layer is responsible for transferring the load from above layers to the
The thickness design of flexible payment also varies with the amount of traffic. The range of
variation in volume at a different highways has direct effect on the repetitions of traffic loads.
The damaging effect of different axle loads is also different. The Indian Road Congress method
of flexible pavement design uses the concept of ESAL for the purpose of flexible pavement
design and the same has been used in this study also.
in order to classify the fine grained soil within one group and for judging their suitability as
subgrade material, and indexing system has been introduced in HRB classification which is
term it as group index. Group index is the function of percentage materials passing through 200
Mesh sieve (0.074 mm), liquid limit and plasticity index of soil and is given by equation:
(0.074 mm). Liquid limit and plasticity index of soil is given by equation:
F = 66%
WL = 55%
IP = 31%
GI = (F-35)0.2 + 0.05(WL-40) + 0.01(F-15) (IP-10) = 17.35
So pavement thickness = 700mm
Thickness of surface course = 35mm
Thickness of DBM = 145mm
Thickness of base course = 200mm
Thickness of sub base = 320mm
F.M Hakeem and R.M.carmany in 1948 provided design method based on stabilometer R-value
and Cohesimeter computer value. Based on performance data it was estabilised by Hveem and
Car many that payments thickness varies directly with R value and logarithm of load
repetitions. It varies inversely with fifth root of computer value. The expression for pavement
thickness is given by the empirical equation.
T = K (TI) (90-R)/C1/5
Here K = total thickness of pavement in centimetre.
TI = numerical constant = 0.166.
R = stabilometer resistance value.
C = Cohesiometer value
The annual value of the equivalent wheel load (EWL) here is the accumulated some of the
products of constant and the number of axle loads. The various constant for the different
number of the axles in group are given below:-
DATA
CALCULATION
TI = 1.35(EWL) 0.11
CONCLUSION
From this report on payment it is observed that flexible payment are the most economical for
lesser of volume of traffic. The life of flexible payment is near about 15 years whose initial cost
is low needs a periodic maintenance after a certain period and maintenance costs are high. The
The pavement is designed as flexible pavement upon a black cotton soil subgrade, the CBR
method as per IRC 37-2001 is most appropriate method than other methods.
The pavement is designed as a flexible method from which each method is design on the basis
of their design thickness from which each method has different cost analysis of a section, from
which CBR as per IRC is most appropriate in term of cost analysis.
The pavement is designed as a rigid pavement, the method suggested by IRC is more suitable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY