WATERFLOODING

Fundamental Principles, Simulation, and Surveillance

Zuher Syihab, Ph.D

Petroleum Engineering
Institute of Technology Bandung (ITB)
Indonesia
September 2018
OUTLINE – DAY 1

1. Introduction to Waterflooding
2. Fluid Properties
3. Material Balance Equation
4. Immiscible Displacement
 1

INTRODUCTION TO
WATERFLOODING
OIL RECOVERY CATEGORIES

Primary (natural) oil recovery:

Production of hydrocarbons under the natural driving mechanisms
present in the reservoir without supplementary help from injected fluids
such as gas or water. In most cases, primary oil recovery is a relatively
inefficient process and results in a low overall oil recovery.

Secondary oil recovery:

Additional recovery that results from the conventional methods of water
injection and immiscible gas injection. Waterflooding is perhaps the
most common method of secondary recovery.

Tertiary (enhanced) oil recovery:

Additional recovery over and above what could be recovered by primary
and secondary recovery methods. The principal concept in enhanced oil
recovery is to reduce the residual oil saturation in the reservoir.
OIL RECOVERY CATEGORIES

U.S. Dept. of Energy

OIL RECOVERY CATEGORIES

Flow Rate

Overall Recovery
OIL RECOVERY CATEGORIES
The terms, primary, secondary, and tertiary may be
confusing as illustrated below:
(1) Water injection in the North Sea is often implemented from the
start. So, is waterflooding a secondary or primary process?

(2) Cyclic steam injection is often applied from

the start for heavy oil reservoirs. Is cyclic steam injection a tertiary
process?

To avoid this confusion, Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) is

a better term. It refers to improved oil recovery methods in
whatever form. It includes the use of horizontal wells, ESP,
fracturing, etc.

Waterflooding is therefore an IOR method

DEFINITION AND CONCEPT

Waterflooding is a method to recover additional oil

above primary means, by displacing oil with injected
water and maintaining (or increasing) reservoir pressure.

Physics of the process are as follows.

(1) Through the use of well patterns, the injected water
improves sweep and displacement efficiency, thus
increasing oil recovery factor.
(2) Reservoir pressure maintenance prevents further
liberation of solution gas, reducing gas-oil
mobility ratio and increasing oil production rate.
(3) Pressure maintenance helps to sustain oil
production rate at increasing watercut.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING

1. Reservoir Geometry
The areal geometry of the reservoir will influence the
location of wells and, if offshore, will influence the
location and number of platforms required.

2. Fluid Properties
The viscosity of the crude oil is considered the most
important fluid property that affects the degree of success
of a waterflooding project. The oil viscosity has the
important effect of determining the mobility ratio that, in
turn, controls the sweep efficiency.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING
3. Reservoir Depth
Maximum injection pressure will increase with depth. The
costs of lifting oil from very deep wells will limit the
maximum economic water-oil ratios that can be tolerated,
thereby reducing the ultimate recovery factor and increasing
the total project operating costs.
On the other hand, a shallow reservoir imposes a restraint on
the injection pressure that can be used, because this must be
less than fracture pressure.

4. Lithology and Rock Properties

Reservoir lithology and rock properties that affect flood
ability and success are: porosity, permeability, clay content,
and net thickness.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING

5. Fluid Saturations
A high oil saturation that provides a sufficient supply of
recoverable oil is the primary criterion for successful
flooding operations. Higher oil saturation at the beginning of
flood operations increases the oil mobility that, in turn, gives
higher recovery efficiency.

6. Reservoir Uniformity and Pay Continuity

Breaks in pay continuity and reservoir anisotropy caused
by depositional conditions, fractures, or faulting need to be
identified and described before determining the proper well
spanning and the suitable flood pattern orientation.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING
7. Primary Reservoir Driving Mechanisms

The primary drive mechanism and anticipated ultimate oil

recovery should be considered when reviewing possible
waterflood prospects.

Solution gas drive mechanisms generally are considered the

best candidates for waterfloods (because the primary
recovery will usually be low).
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING

Reservoir Oil Viscosity

Water injection should be initiated when the reservoir

pressure reaches its bubble-point pressure, since the oil
viscosity reaches its minimum value at this pressure.

Cost of Injection Equipment

This is related to reservoir pressure, and at higher pressures, the

cost of injection equipment increases. Therefore, a low reservoir
pressure at initiation of injection is desirable.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN
WATERFLOODING
Trapped Gas Saturation
Oil recovery by water injection is improved as a result of the
establishment of trapped gas saturation (𝑆𝑔𝑡 ) in the reservoir.
The idea is to reduce the residual oil saturation value (𝑆𝑜𝑟 ) by
an amount equal to the trapped gas saturation.
WATERFLOOD DESIGN

As with all oil production methods, we need to consider

the whole reservoir-well-surface facilities system. For a
successful waterflood, we have to optimize
performance of the total system.

The total system may be divided into three main

components:
1. Water injection system
2. Production system
3. Pattern (reservoir).
WATERFLOOD DESIGN

Three main components of a waterflood system

WATERFLOOD DESIGN

 What do we mean by “optimize performance of the

total system” ?
Select and operate system components to give maximum net
present value (NPV) of the total waterflood project.

 How to maximize NPV of waterflood projects?

Like any project, NPV of a waterflood may be maximized by
one of the following:
 Maximize revenue
 Minimize cost.
WATERFLOOD DESIGN

 How to maximize revenue?

 Maximize production rate (𝑞𝑜 )
 Maximize injection rate (𝑖𝑤 )
 Increase reservoir areal sweep efficiency
 Maximize separator oil yield.

 How to minimize cost?

Minimize pump injection pressure by minimizing pressure
losses in total system.

 How to optimize project performance?

Run cashflow analysis for several scenarios of the total
system. Select scenario with largest NPV.
WATERFLOOD DESIGN

Typical waterflood designs need to be updated or fine-tuned,

because of unavoidable geological and petrophysical
uncertainties in the reservoir model.

Thus, injection and production performance need to be

monitored and analyzed routinely, leading to possible
updating of model.

For a successful waterflood, it is essential to properly

analyze each stage of a waterflood project:
(1) Prior to start of project (design), and
(2) After start of project (termed surveillance, monitoring,
or management).
SELECTION OF FLOODING
PATTERN

The objective is to select the proper pattern that will

provide the injection fluid with the maximum possible
contact with the crude oil system.

When making the selection, the following factors must be

considered:
SELECTION OF FLOODING
PATTERN
 Peripheral Pattern

In peripheral flooding, the

injection wells are located at
the external boundary of the
reservoir and the oil is
displaced toward the interior
of the reservoir.
SELECTION OF FLOODING
PATTERN
 Regular Pattern

 Direct line drive.

 Staggered line drive.
 Five-spot.
 Seven-spot.
 Nine-spot.
SELECTION OF FLOODING
PATTERN
 Regular Pattern
 2
FLUID PROPERTIES
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase diagrams are useful ways of presenting the behavior

of systems. They are generally plots of pressure versus
temperature, and show the phases that exist under these
varying conditions.
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Very useful for:

• Used to visualize the fluid production path from the

reservoir to the surface
• To classify reservoir fluids
• To develop different strategies to produce oil/gas from
reservoir
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Multi-Component Systems
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Why do we need to classify reservoir fluids?

Reservoir fluid classification helps determine:

• Fluid sampling type
• Types and sizes of surface equipment
• Depletion strategy
• Selection of EOR method
• Techniques to predict oil & gas reserves
• Material Balance calculations
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase Envelopes
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Classification of Reservoirs Based on Phase Diagram

 Low-shrinkage oil (heavy oil – black oil)

 High-shrinkage oil (volatile oil)
 Retrograde condensate gas
 Wet gas
 Dry gas.
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase Diagram of a Dry Gas Reservoir

PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase Diagram of a Wet Gas Reservoir

PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase Diagram of a Retrograde Gas Reservoir

PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase Diagram of a Volatile Oil Reservoir

PHASE DIAGRAMS

Phase Diagram of a Black Oil Reservoir

PHASE DIAGRAMS

Typical Reservoir Fluid Compositions

PHASE DIAGRAMS
Classification of Reservoirs Based on Production and PVT Data

1. DRY GAS RESERVOIRS

▪ GOR greater than 100,000 SCF/STB
▪ No liquid produced at surface

2. WET GAS RESERVOIRS

▪ GOR < 100,000 SCF/STB
▪ No liquid is formed in the reservoir
▪ Separator conditions lie within phase envelope and
liquid is produced at surface
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Classification of Reservoirs Based on Production and PVT Data

3. GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIRS

▪ GOR between 70,000-100,000 SCF/STB
▪ Density greater than 60 ºAPI
▪ Light in color
▪ C7+ composition < 12.5%

4. VOLATILE OIL RESERVOIRS

▪ GOR between1,000-8,000 SCF/STB
▪ Density between 45-60 ºAPI
▪ Oil FVF greater than 2.00 (high shrinkage oils)
▪ Light brown to green in color
▪ C7+ composition > 12.5%
PHASE DIAGRAMS
Classification of Reservoirs Based on Production and PVT Data

5. BLACK OIL RESERVOIRS

▪ GOR less than 1,000 SCF/STB
▪ Density less than 45 ºAPI
▪ Reservoir temperatures less than 250 ºF
▪ Oil FVF less than 2.00 (low shrinkage oils)
▪ Dark green to black in color
▪ C7+ composition > 30%
FLUID PROPERTIES COMMONLY USED IN
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

These are obtained by 5 types of laboratory

measurements/tests:
▪ Flash vaporization test
▪ Differential liberation test
▪ Separator test
▪ Viscosity measurement
▪ Compositional measurement
Following parameters are measured:

■ Oil properties
▪ Bubble point pressure, pb
▪ Oil FVF (Bo) versus pressure
▪ Solution GOR (Rs) versus pressure
▪ Two-phase FVF (Bt) versus pressure
▪ Coefficient of isothermal compressibility, co
▪ Oil viscosity, 𝜇𝑜

■ Gas properties
▪ Gas deviation factor, z
▪ Gas FVF (Bg) versus pressrue
▪ Gas viscosity (𝜇𝑔 ) versus pressure
▪ Oil and gas composition
Following three lab tests directly measure
PVT parameters:

▪ Flash vaporization test (1)

▪ Differential liberation test (2)
▪ Separator tests

(1) Also termed: flash liberation, pressure-volume

relations, constant composition expansion (CCE), and
flash expansion.
(2) Also termed: differential vaporization, differential
expansion.
FLASH VAPORIZATION TEST

Cell temperature set at reservoir temperature Parameters measured

▪ pb
▪ co
Determination of Bubble-Point Pressure
Determination of Coefficient of Isothermal
Compressibility, co

𝑉2
For 𝑝 ≥ 𝑝𝑏 : ln
𝑉1
𝑐𝑜 = −
𝑝2 − 𝑝1

Where V2 and V1 are flash vaporization data.

For 𝑝 < 𝑝𝑏 : 1 𝜕𝐵𝑜 𝜕𝑅𝑠

𝑐𝑜 = − − 𝐵𝑔
𝐵𝑜 𝜕𝑝 𝑇
𝜕𝑝 𝑇

Where Bo and Rs are differential liberation data.

DIFFERENTIAL LIBERATION TEST

Cell temperature set at reservoir temperature

DIFFERENTIAL LIBERATION TEST

Parameters measured
▪ Oil formation volume factor (Bo) versus pressure
▪ Solution gas-oil ratio (Rs) versus pressure
▪ Isothermal compressibility (derived property)
DIFFERENTIAL LIBERATION TEST

Example (from McCain):

V Incremental Vg
p Gas Gas o Gas Gas in
Pressure, removed,* removed,** O Gravity solution
psig cc scf il scf
volum
e cc
2620 - - 63.316 - 0.21256
2350 4.396 0.02265 61.496 0.825 0.18991
2100 4.292 0.01966 59.952 0.818 0.17025
1850 4.478 0.01792 58.528 0.797 0.15233
1600 4.960 0.01693 57.182 0.791 0.13540
1350 5.705 0.01618 55.876 0.794 0.11922
1100 6.891 0.01568 54.689 0.809 0.10354
850 8.925 0.01543 53.462 0.831 0.08811
600 12.814 0.01543 52.236 0.881 0.07268
350 24.646 0.01717 50.771 0.988 0.05551
159 50.492 0.01643 49.228 1.213 0.03908
0 0.03908 42.540 2.039 0.0
0 39.572 at 60F
*at 220F and cell pressure
**at 60F and 14.65 psia 0.21256 Vr = 39.572 cc = 0.00024890 bbl
SEPARATOR TEST

resbbl

resbbl
Bob =
STB
SEPARATOR TEST

▪ Tests performed for a range of separator pressures (field

temperature same)

▪ Select separator pressure that yields:

• Maximum oil gravity
• Minimum oil FVF at bubble-point pressure (BoSb)
• Minimum solution GOR at bubble-point pressure (RsSb)
SEPARATOR TEST RESULTS
Adjusting PVT Properties to Optimized
Separator Conditions
Adjusting PVT Properties to Optimized
Separator Conditions
Adjusting PVT Properties to Optimized
Separator Conditions
Adjusting PVT Properties to Optimized
Separator Conditions
Adjusting PVT Properties to Optimized
Separator Conditions

Bg is usually calculated in the PVT report using

differential vaporization data. No need to adjust
the data. If Bg not given in report, calculate as
follows:
Adjusting PVT Properties to Optimized
Separator Conditions
General Profile of Bo
General Profile of Rs
General Profile of Bt
 3

MATERIAL BALANCE
EQUATION
DISPLACEMENT MECHANISMS
Oil is “pushed” or displaced from within the reservoir towards the
producing wells by two possible types of displacement processes or
mechanisms:
(1) Internal displacement mechanisms: from within the reservoir.
These include gas cap gas expansion, expansion of oil and liberated
solution gas.
(2) External flooding mechanism: from outside the reservoir, e.g.
aquifer influx.
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
As a result of production of fluids from the reservoir:
1. Reservoir pressure drops, causing gas cap to expand,
lowering the gas-oil contact (GOC).
2. Reservoir pressure drops, causing aquifer pressure to drop
and expand into the reservoir, thus “pushing” the oil-water
contact (OWC) up.
3. As the reservoir pressure drops below the bubble-point
pressure of the oil, gas comes out of solution in the oil zone.

The change in volume of the various fluids and pore

space in the reservoir may be described by the material
balance equation.
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
As a result of pressure drop:

1. Volume A: increase in volume

due to expansion of oil plus
originally dissolved gas.

2. Volume B: increase in volume

due to expansion of gas cap
gas.

3. Volume C:
decrease in volume due
to expansion of connate
water and reduction in
pore volume.

4. Volume D: decrease in
reservoir volume due to
water influx.
TERMS USED IN MATERIAL
BALANCE EQUATION
TERMS USED IN MATERIAL
BALANCE EQUATION
 MBE: VOLUME BALANCE

Underground
𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵 =
withdrawal

Expansion of oil Expansion

+ 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵 + of 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵
Originally dissolved gas Gas cap
Reduction in
hydrocarbon pore volume
Net
+ due to connate water 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐵
expansion and decrease water influx
in pore volume
MBE: VOLUME BALANCE

Underground Withdrawal
MBE: VOLUME BALANCE

Expansion of Oil and Originally Dissolved Gas

MBE: VOLUME BALANCE

Expansion of Gas Cap Gas

MBE: VOLUME BALANCE
Decrease in HCPV Due to Connate Water Expansion and
Pore Volume Reduction
MBE: VOLUME BALANCE
Decrease in HCPV Due to Connate Water Expansion and
Pore Volume Reduction
MBE: VOLUME BALANCE
Net Water Influx
MBE
General Material Balance Equation

𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 =

𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑔

𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 ቈ +𝑚 −1
𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝐵𝑔𝑖

+ 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
MBE
Notes on MBE

1. The MBE is zero dimensional. That is, the MBE is

evaluated at a point in the reservoir – the centroid – to
properly represent the average properties of the reservoir.

2. The MBE is evaluated by comparing volumes at

pressure p to the original pressure pi. The MBE is not
evaluated in a differential or step-wise manner.

3. The MBE is generally time-independent, except for

the water influx.
MBE
MBE for Undersaturated Reservoirs (no gas cap)

This implies m = 0.
The general MBE is reduced to:
 MBE
MBE for Gas Reservoirs

For a gas reservoir,

Thus, the general MBE is reduced to:

If rock and water compressibility effects and aquifer influx are

negligible, then the reservoir is a volumetric reservoir. The above
equation reduces to:
𝐺𝑝 𝐵𝑔 = 𝐺 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑔𝑖
MBE
Substituting into the gas
MBE for Gas Reservoirs MBE equation,
From the real gas law, 𝐺𝑝 𝐵𝑔 = 𝐺 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑔𝑖
𝑝𝑠𝑐 𝑧𝑇 We have:
𝐵𝑔 =
𝑇𝑠𝑐 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝𝑖 𝐺𝑝
= 1−
𝑧 𝑧𝑖 𝐺

A graph of p/z versus

Gp for a volumetric
gas reservoir.
MBE
MBE for Gas Reservoirs

From p/z versus Gp graph, we obtain:

(1) Gas-initially-in-place, G
Thus, we have an engineering method to validate the
value of G that is based on geological and petrophysical
information.
(2) Gas ultimate recovery (Gas UR)
This is the most reliable method for estimating gas
ultimate recovery; any other method has to assume a value
for G.
Gas reserves at a particular time t
Reserves = Gas UR - Gp
where Gp = cumulative production at time t
MBE

Drive Indices

The drive index is the fraction of the total underground

withdrawal that is replaced by a particular drive
mechanism.

Pirson defined three drive index groups:

DDI = depletion drive index
SDI = segregation (gas cap) drive index
WDI = water drive index
MBE
Drive Indices

Dividing by the left hand term of the general MBE,

𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔

𝑫𝑫𝑰 + 𝑺𝑫𝑰 + 𝑾𝑫𝑰 = 𝟏

MBE
Drive Indices

If the depletion drive index (DDI) dominates,

the reservoir is a possible candidate for
pressure maintenance, e.g. by waterflooding.
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

Havlena and Odeh developed the straight-line

MBE by grouping the terms representing the
withdrawal and drive mechanisms.
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE
1. Underground withdrawal (including water produced)
𝐹 = 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤 (RB)

2. Expansion of oil + originally dissolved gas

𝐸𝑜 = 𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 (RB/STB)

3. Gas Cap Gas Expansion

𝐵𝑔
𝐸𝑔 = 𝐵𝑜𝑖 −1 (RB/STB)
𝐵𝑔𝑖

4. Connate water expansion and pore volume reduction

𝑐𝑤 𝑆𝑤𝑐 + 𝑐𝑓
𝐸𝑓,𝑤 = 1 + 𝑚 𝐵𝑜𝑖 ∆𝑝 (RB/STB)
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑐
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

Substituting the above four expressions into the general MBE,

we get the Havlena-Odeh general MBE expression:

𝐹 = 𝑁 𝐸𝑜 + 𝑚𝐸𝑔 + 𝐸𝑓,𝑤 + 𝑊𝑒 (RB)

The following are noteworthy about the Havlena-

Odeh general MBE:
1. It has fewer terms than the original general
MBE, thus is less wieldy.
2. Balance between withdrawal and voidage
replacement terms is clear.
3. It is a linear equation under certain conditions.
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

1. Case 1 - reservoir with

• no gas cap, m = 0
• negligible water influx, We = 0
• compressibility term can be neglected, cf,w = 0

The Havlena-Odeh general MBE is then reduced to:

𝐹 = 𝑁𝐸𝑜

A plot of F versus Eo yields a straight line with slope N.

HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

2. Case 2 - reservoir with

• no gas cap, m = 0
• compressibility term can be neglected, cf,w = 0

The Havlena-Odeh general MBE is then reduced to:

A plot of F/Eo versus We/Eo yields a straight line with unit

slope and intercept of N.
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

3. Case 3 - reservoir with

• negligible water influx, We = 0
• compressibility term can be neglected, cf,w = 0

The Havlena-Odeh general MBE is then reduced to:


F  N E o  mE g 
A plot of F versus (Eo + mEg) yields a straight line with
slope N and intercept at the origin.
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

3. Case 3 - reservoir with

• negligible water influx, We = 0
• compressibility term can be neglected, cf,w = 0

If plot is not a straight line, value of m may be erroneous.

Adjust m until a straight line is obtained.

Graphical method of interpretation

of the MBE to determine the size
of the gas cap (Havlena and Odeh).
HAVLENA-ODEH
STRAIGHT LINE MBE

3. Case 3 - reservoir with

• negligible water influx, We = 0
• compressibility term can be neglected, cf,w = 0

If there is uncertainty in values of both m and N, a different

form of Havlena-Odeh MBE is used

Dividng by Eo:
WATERFLOOD MBE
Recall the general MBE:

𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 =
𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 𝐵𝑔
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 ቈ +𝑚 −1
𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝐵𝑔𝑖

+ 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤

For waterflood MBE:

• index i represents at start of waterflood,
• unindexed parameters represent values at later time,
• Np, Rp and Wp are values after start of waterflood
WATERFLOOD MBE
During a waterflood, reservoir pressure is assumed to be
maintained. Consequently:

Aquifer influx, We (RB), is replaced by cumulative water injected,

WiBw (RB). Substituting these expressions into the general MBE,
we get:

𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑊𝑖 − 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤

This is the general MBE for a waterflood.

WATERFLOOD MBE
Special Case
In the case where
• there is no movable gas saturation at start of the waterflood
(Sgi = 0), for example, when p > pb, or
• movable gas has been produced

then:

Substitution into the general MBE for waterflood gives:

WATERFLOOD MBE

Differentiating this equation

with respect to time gives:

Now:
𝑑𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑊𝑝 𝑑𝑊𝑖
𝑞𝑜 = (STB/D) 𝑞𝑤 = (STB/D) 𝑖𝑤 = (STB/D)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
WATERFLOOD MBE

Substituting the equations gives:

This equation simply states that during a waterflood,

where reservoir pressure is constant:

Rate of 𝑅𝐵ൗ = Rate of Oil and 𝑅𝐵ൗ

Water Injected 𝐷 Water Produced 𝐷

That is, a statement of material balance:

Rate of Rate of
=
voidage replacement underground withdrawal
 4

IMMISCIBLE
DISPLACEMENT
FUNDAMENTAL
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) – in particular the displacement of

oil by water - in the reservoir is affected by interactions between
the fluids and rock, and between the fluids.

These interactions are the result of fundamental intermolecular

forces of cohesion and adhesion, which are defined as follows.

(1) Cohesion: intermolecular force between like molecules

(2) Adhesion: force of attraction between unlike molecules.

In the reservoir, adhesive and cohesive forces are often linked.

COHESION

At surface of water droplet, cohesive forces stronger than lower in

the liquid, resulting in a force called surface tension.

Surface tension = force (in dyne) required to break a film of

length 1 cm, or is the surface energy (in ergs/cm2).
COHESION
At 20˚C, surface tension (dyne/cm) = 72.8 (water); 22.3 (ethyl
alcohol); 465 (mercury).

Surface tension of water decreases with temperature

ADHESION

Adhesive forces between water and glass molecules at inner wall

of a glass tube are stronger than the cohesive forces. This result in
the formation of a meniscus that curves upward and constitute
capillary action.
FUNDAMENTAL
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Fluid-rock and fluid-fluid interactions are inter-related, and

arise out of cohesive and adhesive forces experienced by a
fluid.

The resulting phenomena are as shown below and affect

reservoir fluid flow.
(1) Wettability
(2) Interfacial tension
(3) Capillary pressure
WETTABILITY
Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread
on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.

Consider placing a drop of water on a solid surface, followed

by covering the water droplet with oil, as shown in the
figure. Three interfaces are formed: oil-water (ow), oil-solid
(os), and water-solid (ws).
WETTABILITY

Wettability depends on contact or wetting angle, measured –

by convention – through the denser medium (water).
INTERFACIAL TENSION

Interfacial tension (IFT), , exist between the phases as follows:

 os  oil - solid IFT
 ws  water - solid IFT
 ow  oil - water IFT

Resolving forces at the point of contact for the water - wet case :
 os   ws   ow Cos 
CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Due to adhesion and surface tension, water rises in the

capillary columns – up to a certain level. The column head
(gravitational downward force) is balanced by surface tension
forces (upward force).
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Capillary pressure (Pc) defined as:

𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 − 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝑐 ℎ = ℎ𝑔 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙
CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Upward surface tension force = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 × 2𝜋𝑟

Balance of upward and downward forces implies:

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 × 2𝜋𝑟
This equation
2𝜎 cos 𝜃 indicates relationship
𝑃𝑐 =
𝑟 between capillary
pressure and surface
tension.
Height versus Capillary Pressure Relationship
Factors Affecting Immiscible Displacement

Oil may be displaced or “pushed” by another fluid in the

reservoir under two different miscibility conditions, as
described in the following.

1. Immiscible displacement:
Oil displacement by another fluid, there being no mixing of
the fluids. For example, displacement of oil by water during
waterflooding.

2. Miscible displacement:
Oil displacement by another fluid, the two fluids mixing
upon contact. For example, displacement of oil by carbon
dioxide, the latter dissolving in the former.
Immiscible Displacement

Immiscible displacement of oil by water may occur under the

following two different flow conditions:
(1) Vertical equilibrium
(2) Diffuse flow
Oil displacement results from the action of one or more of
the following forces.
(a) Viscous (Darcy or pressure gradient) force
(b) Capillary force
(c) Gravitational force

Significance of each of these forces will determine

whether oil displacement will be under vertical
equilibrium or diffuse flow condition.
Vertical Equilibrium

Under vertical equilibrium, the fluids in a reservoir are

distributed instantaneously in line with capillary-gravity
equilibrium.

Water saturation as a
function of reservoir
thickness (Dake)
Vertical Equilibrium

Vertical equilibrium is favored over diffuse flow under

the following conditions:
• a large vertical permeability, kv
• small reservoir thickness, h
• large density difference between the fluids
• high capillary forces, meaning large capillary transition
zone, H, relative to the reservoir thickness, h
• low fluid viscosities
• low injection rates
Diffuse Flow

Under diffuse flow conditions, fluid saturations at any

point in the linear displacement path are uniformly
distributed with respect to thickness.
Diffuse Flow

Diffuse flow is favored under following conditions:

• Displacement at low injection rates in reservoirs for

which the capillary transition zone greatly exceeds the
reservoir thickness and the vertical equilibrium
condition applies.

• Displacement occurs at very high injection rates so

that the effects of capillary and gravity forces are
negligible. The vertical equilibrium condition is not
satisfied.
Relative Permeability

In single-phase flow, effective permeability

equals absolute permeability.
Relative Permeability
Relative Permeability

Relative permeability of a phase is a function of its

saturation.

Effective oil and water permeability, ko and kw, are

defined as:
𝑘𝑜 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑜 𝑘𝑤 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑤
Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations

These are empirical correlations for two-phase relative

permeability (water-oil and gas-oil systems) of
consolidated rock.

Correlations were based on linear regression of

laboratory results of several hundred samples from
various parts of the world (correlation coefficients 75-
94%). Correlations are grouped according to lithology
and wettability:
1. Water-wet
2. Oil- and intermediate-wet
3. All wetting conditions.
Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations

Sandstone and Conglomerate

Water-wet (water-oil system)

2.9
𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 0.035388 − 0.010874
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
+ 0.56556 𝑆𝑤 3.6 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

Oil- and intermediate-wet (water-oil system)

1.91
𝑆 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 1.5814 𝑤 − 0.58617 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
− 1.2484𝜑 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations
Sandstone and Conglomerate
All wetting (water-oil system)
1.8
𝑆𝑜
− 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
2
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 0.76067
1 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
+ 2.6318𝜑 1 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤 𝑆𝑜 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations
Sandstone and Conglomerate

All wetting (gas-oil system)

Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations
Limestone and Dolomite

Water-wet (water-oil system)

0.43
𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 1
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 0.0020525 − 0.051371 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
𝜑2.15 𝑘𝑎

Oil- and intermediate-wet (water-oil system)

2
𝑆 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
𝑘𝑟𝑤 = 0.29986 𝑤 − 0.32797 𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
4
𝑆𝑤 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
+ 0.413259
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟𝑤
Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations
Limestone and Dolomite

All wetting (water-oil system)

All wetting (gas-oil system)

Honarpour et al. Relative Permeability
Correlations
Limestone and Dolomite

All wetting (gas-oil system)

Drainage and Imbibition Curves

Drainage - process where the wetting phase (water) saturation is

decreasing.
Example – oil migration (during geologic times) into an initially
water-saturated trap and subsequent displacement of water out of
the reservoir, leaving behind only residual or connate water.

Imbibition - process where the wetting phase (water)

saturation is increasing.
Example – an oil reservoir being waterflooded.
Typical Drainage and Imbibition Relative
Permeability Curves (Craig)
Typical Effect of Wettability on Drainage and
Imbibition Relative Permeability Curves (Craig)
Semilog Plot of the Same Data as in Previous
Relative Permeability Curves (Craig)
Typical Oil-Water Relative Permeability End-Point
Values for Water-Wet and Oil-Wet Rocks (Craig)
MOBILITY AND MOBILITY RATIO

Mobility of a fluid (𝜆) is defined as:

fluid effective permeability 𝑘𝑘𝑟

𝜆= =
fluid viscosity 𝜇

Mobility ratio of two fluids (M), that is, water displacing oil, is
defined as:
MOBILITY AND MOBILITY RATIO

End-point mobility ratio is mobility ratio evaluated at the end

points 𝑆𝑤 = 𝑆𝑤𝑐 and 𝑆𝑤 = 1 − 𝑆𝑜𝑟 .
THANK YOU
END OF SLIDES –
FOR DAY 1