Plain Bearing

Plain or sleeve bearings are designed to support shafts that rotate,

oscillate, or reciprocate. Certainly one of the least expensive
mechanical parts, sleeve bearings are used as highly engineered
components. Sleeve bearing lubrication is hydrodynamic; i.e., during
operation, the shaft floats on a thin film of the lubricant. Because of
this, friction and wear are minimized.
Fluid film or hydrodynamic lubrication is the term given when a shaft
rotating in a bearing is supported by a layer or wedge of oil so that the
shaft is not in contact with the bearing material.
Lubricant Supply.
Proper bearing design and material are necessary to achieve long
service life but are not by themselves sufficient. The lubricant is the key
component of the system which determines bearing life. Reduced to
simplest terms, if a sleeve bearing is provided with an adequate flow of
the proper clean lubricant, long life should be realized. Lubricant flow to
the bearings is a function of the equipment design.
Oil pressure at specified speeds should be within the limits given by the
equipment builder. Lower values suggest worn bearings. In this case,
replacement should be made as soon as is feasible. Excessive pressures
indicate a blockage or restriction somewhere in the system. This should
be investigated immediately. The oil level also should be checked on a
routine basis to avoid pump cavitation and subsequent oil starvation.
In non pressurized lube systems, reservoirs should be checked on a
regular schedule to ensure that adequate oil is always present.
 Requirements of Bearing Material
Surface Action.
Sometimes referred to as slipperiness or compatibility, surface action is the ability of a material to
resist removal when contacted by the shaft. Contact takes place every time the equipment is started
or stopped and can also occur during momentary overloads.
Embeddability. The ability of a material to absorb foreign particles circulating in the oil stream is
referred to as embeddability. Some particles will go unfiltered, so the material must be soft enough
to ingest them.
Conformability. The material also must be soft enough to creep or flow slightly to compensate for
the minor geometric irregularities which are present in every assembly. These include misalignment
out-of-round, and taper.
Fatigue Strength. This is the ability of a bearing material to withstand the loads to which it is
subjected
without cracking. Bearings should not fatigue prior to the normally scheduled service.
Temperature Strength. As operating temperatures increase, bearing materials tend to lose strength.
This property indicates how well a material carries a load at elevated temperatures, without breaking
up or flowing out of shape.
Thermal Conductivity. Shear of the oil film by the shaft generates significant heat, most of which is
carried away by the oil. It is important for the bearing to transfer heat rapidly from its surface
through its back to avoid overheating and resultant reduction in life.
Construction
Most hydrodynamic bearings are metallic, primarily for reasons of thermal
conductivity. They may consist of one, two, or three layers.
Mono-metals.
Bearings made from a solid bar or tubes of an aluminum or bronze alloy have
been available for a number of years. They are generally used where loads are
not very high. In order to have the same rigidity as a bearing with a steel back
and to avoid yielding at operating temperature, they are made with a
comparatively thick wall. As a result, they require a larger housing bore.
Bimetals.
A bimetal bearing has a steel back, to which is bonded a liner of Babbitt,
copper-lead, or aluminum. Babbitts are soft alloys of lead or tin, with
additives such as copper, antimony, and arsenic. They have outstanding
embeddability, conformability, and surface action but relatively low fatigue
strength. Copper-leads and aluminums are harder than Babbitts and have
much better strengths.
Tri-metals.
In order to achieve the desirable surface properties of a Babbitt bearing
and the strengths of harder materials, the tri-metal bearing was
developed for heavy-duty applications. In this construction, a thin
(usually about 0.001-in.) layer of a soft material is either electroplated or
cast onto the copper-lead or aluminum layer of a bimetal. The surface
layer (overlay) imparts the desired “soft” properties to the bearing;
however, because it is so thin, it derives improved fatigue strength from
the intermediate layer; i.e., it is much stronger than a thick layer of the
same soft alloy.
Rolling Bearing
Rolling bearings include radial and thrust bearings for radial and axial loads,
respectively, and some bearing types which are designed for combined radial
and axial loads. Generally speaking, ball bearings are recommended for light to
moderate loads; roller bearings are recommended for heavy loads.
In general, most ball, spherical roller, and cylindrical roller bearings made to
metric boundary dimensions have standardized boundary plans, dimensions,
and tolerances according to the International Standards Organization (ISO).
Therefore, bearings from all subscribing manufacturers throughout the world
are dimensionally interchangeable. Most taper roller bearings are made to inch
dimensions and have standardized boundary dimensions and tolerances
according to the Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers Association (AFBMA), a
U.S. standards organization.
Metric taper roller bearings utilizing ISO boundary plans are also made.
Dimensionally interchangeable taper roller bearing components are thus
available from several manufacturers. In most cases, identical basic part
numbers are used.
Bearing Mounting
When rolling bearings are mounted on a shaft, some provision must be made for
thermal expansion and/or contraction of the shaft. Also, the shaft must be located
and held axially so that all machine parts remain in the proper relationship
dimensionally. This is normally done by clamping one of the bearings on the shaft.
When the inner ring has the tight fit, it is usually locked axially relative to the shaft
by locating it between a shaft shoulder and some type of removable locking device.
A specially designed nut as shown in Fig. is normal for a through shaft.
• Bearing mounting with a special nut for a through shaft.
• A clamp plate as shown in Fig. 2.9 is normally used when the bearing
is mounted on the end of the shaft. For the locating or held bearing of
the shaft, the outer ring is clamped axially, usually between housing
shoulders or end-cap pilots. This type of mounting restricts axial
movement of the shaft to the end movement resulting from the
internal clearance of the bearing. If required, this can be zero if the
appropriate bearing type is used. The outer rings on all other bearings
on the shaft should not be secured axially, and enough clearance
should be provided between the side face of the stationary ring and
the nearest housing shoulders to allow for anticipated expansion or
contraction. Typical mountings are shown in Fig. 2.10
MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING OF ROLLER
BEARINGS
The most important thing to remember when mounting or dismounting a roller
bearing, of any type, is to apply the mounting or dismounting force to the side face
of the ring with the interference fit. Keep this force from passing from one ring to
the other through the ball or roller set. This is particularly important during
mounting, since damage can easily occur internally to the bearing. Cleanliness is of
course, extremely important. Not only the bearing but also the shaft housing must
be free from chips, burrs, dirt, and moisture.
• Bearings should be kept wrapped or covered until the last possible moment.
Since most modern rust preventives used by bearing manufacturers are
compatible with petroleum-based lubricants. If oil-mist lubrication is to be used
and the slushing compound has hardened in storage or is blocking lubrication
holes in the bearing rings, it is best to clean the bearing with kerosene or other
appropriate petroleum-based solvent.
Lubrication
The primary purpose of lubrication in a rolling bearing is to separate the contacting surfaces, both
rolling and sliding. This purpose is rarely achieved, and boundary lubrication or partial metal-to-
metal contact frequently occurs. By far the most common lubricants are petroleum products in the
form of grease or liquid oil. Synthetics are, however, finding more use in high-temperature
applications.
Oil Lubrication. For oil lubrication, the Annular Bearing Engineers Committee (ABEC) has issued
the following recommendations:
The friction torque in a ball bearing lubricated with oil consists essentially of two components. One
of these is a function of the bearing design and the load imposed on the bearing, and the other is a
function of the viscosity and quantity of the oil and the speed of the bearing. It has been found that
the friction torque in a bearing is lowest with a very small quantity of oil, just sufficient to form a
thin film over the contacting surfaces, and that the friction will increase with greater quantity and
with higher viscosity of the oil. With more oil than just enough to make a film, the friction torque
will also increase with the speed.
Grease Lubrication.
Where grease lubrication is used, we need to consider a few of the basic
physical and chemical characteristics of the lubricant. Greases are a
mixture of lubricating oil and usually a soap base. The base merely acts
to keep the oil in suspension. When moving parts of a bearing come in
contact with the grease, a small quantity of oil will adhere to the
bearing surfaces. Oil is therefore removed from the grease near the
rotating parts. Bleeding of the oil from the grease obviously cannot go
on indefinitely, so new grease must come in contact with the moving
part or a lubrication failure will result.
Flexible coupling
A flexible coupling is a mechanical device used to connect two axially
oriented shafts. Its purpose is to transmit torque or rotary motion without
slip and at the same time compensate for angular, parallel, and axial
misalignment. There are many supplementary functions, which include
providing for or restricting axial movement of the connected shafts;
minimizing or eliminating the conduction of heat, electricity, or sound;
torsional dampening; and torsional tuning of a system.
Basically, all flexible couplings can be categorized as either mechanical
flexing or material flexing. The mechanical-flexing group provides flexibility
by allowing the components to slide or move relative to each other.
Clearances are provided to permit movements to within specific limits.
Lubrication is usually required to reduce wear within the coupling and to
minimize the cross-loading in the connected shafts. The most prominent in
this category are the chain, gear, grid, and Oldham flexible couplings.
The material-flexing group provides flexibility by having certain parts
designed to flex. These flexing elements can be of various materials,
such as metal, rubber, plastic, or composite. Couplings of this type
generally must be operated within the fatigue limits of the material of
the flexing element.
Most metals have a predictable fatigue limit and permit the
establishment of definite boundaries of operation. Elastomers (rubber,
plastic, etc.) usually do not have well-defined fatigue limits, and service
life is determined primarily by the operational conditions. The material-
flexing group includes laminated-disk, diaphragm, spring, and elastomer
flexible couplings.
Types of coupling
Chain couplings
Chain coupling are compact units capable of
transmitting proportionately high torques at low
speeds. They consist of two hubs having sprocket teeth
which are connected by a strand of single-roller, double-
roller, or silent chain. Shaft misalignment is
accommodated by clearances between the chain and
the sprocket teeth and/or clearances within the chain
itself. A number of special features such as hardened
sprocket teeth, special tooth forms, and barrel-shaped
rollers are available which are designed to increase
flexibility and reduce wear. Nonmetallic chains are used
on light-duty drives where the use of a lubricant is
prohibited.
Coupling covers are recommended for all drives where the rotating speed is capable
of slinging the lubricant or where the atmosphere is wet, corrosive, or abrasive.
They protect the coupling and greatly extend its life by retaining the lubricant and
preventing dirt or other foreign materials from coming in contact with or between
the sliding parts. Most covers rotate with the coupling. Grease holes permit
lubrication without disturbing the gaskets or seals. Covers should be half-filled with
light grease. A heavier grease should be used if the coupling is operated in a high-
temperature environment. Routine flushing and re-lubricating are required. It is
generally recommended that a roller-chain coupling be re-lubricated every 6
months or sooner depending on the conditions of operation. Stationary oil-bath
covers are available for large, slow speed chain couplings. Where a cover is not
required, the chain and sprockets should be coated thoroughly with a good quality
bearing grease. The use of a stiff brush is suggested because it will give better
penetration of the grease into critical areas of the chain. This is generally required
on a weekly basis
Gear couplings (Figs.2- 5), the most prominent type in the mechanical-flexing
group, are available in a wide range of sizes and styles. They are capable of
transmitting proportionately high torques at either low or high speeds. In their
most common form, they are compact and consist of two identical hubs with
external gear teeth and a sleeve or sleeves with matching internal gear teeth.
Shaft misalignment is accommodated by clearances between the matching gear
teeth. Special tooth forms are available which are designed to reduce wear and
increase flexibility without increasing clearances. These include crowned tips,
curved flanks, and curved roots. The sleeve may be a single tubular piece, or it
may consist of two flanged halves bolted rigidly together.
Floating-shaft gear couplings usually consist of a standard coupling with a two-
piece sleeve. The sleeve halves are bolted to rigid flanges to form two single-
flexing couplings. These are connected by an intermediate shaft which permits the
transmission of power between widely separated machines. On high-speed or
short-span drives, spools are used to separate the two half couplings.
Gear Coupling

Fig.3 Gear-tooth coupling, spacer type.

Fig.2 Gear-tooth coupling, standard (Zurn Industries, Inc.)
double engagement
type. (The Falk Corporation.)
Fig.4 Gear-tooth coupling, spindle Fig.5 Gear-tooth coupling, high-
type. speed
(Zurn Industries, Inc.) spacer type. (Zurn Industries, Inc.)
Spindle couplings are a modification of the floating-shaft gear coupling. They are
used extensively on mill-roll drives and other related equipment which has
unavoidable offsetting of the driving and driven shafts. In addition to accepting
large angles of misalignment, they must operate with a relatively uniform angular
velocity. These couplings are subject to severe operating conditions and are
therefore a relatively high maintenance item. Numerous special features are
available which are designed to reduce maintenance and down time.
Metallic-grid couplings (Fig.6) are compact units capable of transmitting
proportionately high torques at moderate speeds. They consist of two flanged
hubs with special grooves or slots cut axially on the outside. Flexibility is achieved
by sliding movement of the grid in the slots. Flexure of the grid in the curved slots
provides some torsional resilience. The grid may be of one piece or may be
provided in two or more sections. Grids with tapered cross sections are available
from some manufacturers and are designed to ease installation and removal.
Horizontal covers are designed for ease of assembly and removal, particularly in tight
spaces, as they can be put on after the hubs and grid spring element have been already
assembled.
Fig.6 Metallic-grid
coupling. (The Falk
Corporation.) Fig.7 Oldham coupling. (Zurn Industries, Inc.)
Oldham couplings (Fig.7 ) are also known as block-and-jaw couplings. They are compact
units normally referred to light or medium duty and moderate speeds. They consist of two
jaw flanges and a floating-block center member. The jaw flanges are positioned at right
angles to each other and engage opposite parallel surfaces of the block.
 Small-sized light-duty couplings usually have flanges of die-cast metal and blocks of non-
metallic material such as laminated phenolic plastic. These units do not require any
lubrication. The larger-sized couplings usually have hubs of cast iron and blocks of oil-
impregnated sintered metal. On some styles, the bearing surfaces of the block are provided
with replaceable nonmetallic strips. The block has a reservoir for lubricant which is fed to
the bearing strips through orifices. Shaft misalignment is provided for by slippage of the
block between the jaw flanges. Alignment of the connected shafts should be within the
coupling manufacturer’s recommendation and usually can be accomplished with the use of
a straightedge.
Laminated disk-ring couplings (Figs.8) are the most prominent type in the material
flexing group and are available in a wide range of sizes and styles. They are capable of
transmitting proportionately high torques at either low or high speeds. In their most
common double-flexing form, two flanged hubs are connected to a floating center
member through laminated disk rings.
 Each of the disk rings is alternately bolted or riveted to a hub flange and center member.
The disk rings in tandem allow the coupling to accommodate angular and parallel
misalignment as well as a limited amount of end float. In their single-flexing form, they
consist of two flanged hubs and one laminated disk ring. The disk ring is alternatively
bolted to the flanged hubs. These single-flexing units are capable of supporting a radial
load and provide concentricity of connected three-bearing assemblies. They will accept
only angular misalignment and a reduced amount of end float. Shaft misalignment is
provided for by flexure of the disk rings. Since these units are normally of all-metal
construction, they are free of backlash and are relatively rigid in a torsional plane
 Fig.9 Elastomeric coupling, shear-type
flexing element.
Fig.8 Laminated disc-ring coupling, (Rexnord Corporation, Coupling
standard Division.)
double-engagement type. (Rexnord
Corporation,
Coupling Division.)
Elastomeric couplings (Figs.9) are available in an almost infinite
number of versions. They are generally categorized into two types.
There are those in which the elastomer is placed in shear and those in
which it is placed in compression. Their ability to compensate for shaft
misalignment is obtained by flexure and/or displacement of the
elastomeric element.
 These couplings are generally relegated to light- or medium-duty
service at moderate speeds. In their basic concept, they consist of two
hubs separated and connected by the elastomeric element. On shear-
type couplings, the elastomer may be bonded, clamped, or fitted to
matching sections of the hubs. The compression-type couplings
usually utilize projecting pins, bolts to connect the components. The
elastomeric flexing elements may be polyurethane, rubber neoprene,
or impregnated cloths and fibers.