Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology: Powerpoint Lectures For

Chapter 38
Angiosperm Reproduction and

Biotechnology
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: To Seed or Not to Seed
• The parasitic plant Rafflesia arnoldii
– Produces enormous flowers that can produce up to 4 million
seeds
 emits a foul decaying
corpse odor irresistible
female blowflies,
allowing pollen grains to
adhere to the insect
bodies
Figure 38.1
 insect does not profit
from interacting with the
flower
Flowers, Double Fertilization & Fruits
are the Key Features of the Angiosperm Life Cycle
• Plant life cycles are characterized by an alternation of
generations
 multicellular haploid (n) & multicellular diploid (2n) generations
alternately produce each other
• In angiosperms, the dominant generation is the sporophyte (2n)
– Produces spores that develop within flowers into male
gametophytes (pollen grains)
– Produces female gametophytes (embryo sacs)

Flower Structure
• Flowers
– Are the determinate reproductive
shoots of the angiosperm
sporophyte
– Are composed of 4 floral organs
attached to a receptacle:
1. sepals sterile modified leaves
2. petals
3. stamens
sporophylls—modified leaves
4. carpels specialized for reproduction
Flower Structure
captures the pollen
contains microsporangia
(pollen sacs) that
produce pollen
brightly colored to attract

pollinators enclose & protect
unopened floral buds
becomes seed if fertilized

Many variations in floral structure
• Complete Flowers vs. Incomplete Flowers
 have all four basic  lacks sepals, petals, stamens or

floral organs carpels
 can either be:
 sterile & lacking functional stamens
& carpels
 unisexual ( or imperfect) & lacking
either stamens or carpels

Many variations in floral structure SYMMETRY OVARY LOCATION FLORAL DISTRIBUTION
Lupine inflorescence
– Have evolved during Bilateral
symmetry
the 140 million years (orchid)
Superior
of angiosperm history ovary
– can vary in size, Sunflower

inflorescence
shape, color, odor,
Sepal
organ arrangement & Semi-inferior ovary Inferior ovary
time of opening Radial symmetry

(daffodil)
– may be borne singly Fused petals
or arranged in showy REPRODUCTIVE VARIATIONS
clusters called
inflorescences.
Maize, a
monoecious
species Dioecious Sagittaria
latifolia (common
Figure
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 38.3 arrowhead)
Pollination
• In angiosperms
– POLLINATION is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma
– If pollination is successful, a pollen grain produces a structure called
a pollen tube, which grows down into the ovary and discharges
sperm near the embryo sac
– Methods:
1. Abiotic pollination
2. Biotic pollination
 Some angiosperm can self-pollinate but are limited to inbreeding in
nature
Pollination
METHODS OF POLLINATION
1. Abiotic Pollination
 includes about 20% of angiosperm pollination
 Most are wind-pollinated & a few are water-
pollinated
 Has no selective pressure favoring colorful or
scented flowers.
 Exhibited by most temperate trees &grasses & other
small, green & inconspicuous plants that do not
produce scent or nectar
 relative inefficiency is compensated for by Hazel staminate flowers
production of copious amounts of pollen grains (stamens only) releasing
clouds of pollene
Pollination
METHODS OF POLLINATION Coevolution of a flower
and an insect pollinator.
2. Biotic Pollination
 includes about 80% of all angiosperm
pollination
 animal pollinators are drawn by either
bright colors or odor to flowers for the food
they provide in the form of pollen & nectar
 has selective pressure for pollinators to
become adept at harvesting food from
these flowers
 joint evolution of two interacting species, each in response to selection
imposed by the other, is called coevolution
Pollination
METHODS OF POLLINATION
2. Biotic Pollination
Long-nosed bat feeding

Hummingbird drinking on agave flowers at night
nectar of columbine flower
Moth on yucca flower
Blowfly on carrion flower Common dandelion normal (left) &

ultraviolet light (right)
The life cycle of
angiosperms
angiosperms
gametophytes are
microscopic, consist of
only a few cells & and
their development
is obscured by
protective tissues.

Gametophyte Development
• Embryo sacs (b) Development of a female gametophyte
(embryo sac)
– Develop from
megaspores Mega-
sporangium
1
Within the ovule’s
megasporangium is a large
within ovules Ovule Mega-
sporocyte
diploid cell called the
MEIOSIS
megasporocyte
Integuments
(megaspore mother cell).
Micropyle
2 The megasporocyte divides by
Surviving meiosis and gives rise to four
megaspore haploid cells, but in most species
only one of these survives as the
Female gametophyte
(embryo sac) megaspore.
MITOSIS
Ovule Antipodel
3
Cells (3)
Three mitotic divisions of the
Polar megaspore form the embryo sac,
Nuclei (2)
a multicellular female gametophyte.
Egg (1) The ovule now consists of the
Integuments Synergids (2) embryo sac along with the
surrounding integuments
(protective tissue).
Key
to labels Embryo
sac
100 m
Haploid (2n)
Diploid (2n)
Figure 38.4b
Gametophyte Development
Development of a male gametophyte
• Pollen (pollen grain)
Pollen sac
– Develops from (microsporangium)
microspores within the 1
Each one of the Micro- MEIOSIS
sporangia of anthers microsporangia contains
diploid microsporocytes
sporocyte
(microspore mother cells).

Micro-
spores (4)
2
Each microsporocyte divides
Each of 4 MITOSIS
by meiosis to produce four microspores
haploid microspores, each
of which develops into a
pollen grain. Generative
cell (will Male
form 2 Gametophyte
sperm) (pollen grain)
3
A pollen grain becomes a mature
male gametophyte when its
Nucleus
generative nucleus divides and of tube cell KEY
forms two sperm. This usually 20 m to labels
occurs after a pollen grain lands
on the stigma of a carpel and the Ragweed Haploid (2n)
pollen tube begins to grow. (See pollen Diploid (2n)
grain
Figure 38.2b.) 75 m
Figure 38.4a
Sperm delivery &
Double Fertilization
Fertilization – the fusion of
gametes that occurs after the
2 sperm reach the female  ovule develops into a seed
gametophyte.  ovary develops into a fruit
 double fertilization –
union of the two sperm
cells with different nuclei of
the female gametophyte
 ensures that endosperm
develops only in ovules
where the egg has been
fertilized
 prevents nutrients wasted
on infertile ovules
Formed from the
Sperm delivery &
integuments of ovule Double Fertilization
Embryonic axis where
Embryonic root the cotyledons are
attached and below
the first pair of
miniature leaves

Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization
• Many angiosperms
– Have mechanisms that make it difficult or impossible for a flower
to fertilize itself
Stigma Stigma
Anther
with
pollen
Pin flower Thrum flower
Figure 38.5
• The most common anti-selfing mechanism in flowering plants
– Is known as self-incompatibility, the ability of a plant to reject its
own pollen
– a pollen grain lands on a stigma of a flower of the same plant or
a closely related plant, a biochemical block prevents the pollen
from completing its development and fertilizing an egg.
• Researchers are unraveling the molecular mechanisms that are

involved in self-incompatibility

• Some plants
– Reject pollen that has an S-gene matching an allele in the stigma
cells
• Recognition of self pollen

– Triggers a signal transduction pathway leading to a block in
growth of a pollen tube

• Concept 38.2: After fertilization, ovules develop into seeds and
ovaries into fruits

Double Fertilization
• After landing on a receptive stigma
– A pollen grain germinates and produces a pollen tube that
extends down between the cells of the style toward the ovary
• The pollen tube

– Then discharges two sperm into the embryo sac

• In double fertilization
– One sperm fertilizes the egg
– The other sperm combines with the polar nuclei, giving rise to the
food-storing endosperm

• Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization
Pollen grain Stigma
Pollen tube
1 If a pollen grain
germinates, a pollen tube 2 sperm
grows down the style
toward the ovary.
Style
Polar Ovary
nuclei
Ovule (containing
Egg female
gametophyte, or
embryo sac)
Micropyle
2 The pollen tube Ovule

discharges two sperm into Polar nuclei
the female gametophyte
(embryo sac) within an ovule. Egg
Two sperm
about to be
3 One sperm fertilizes discharged
the egg, forming the zygote.
The other sperm combines with
the two polar nuclei of the embryo Endosperm nucleus (3n)
sac’s large central cell, forming (2 polar nuclei plus sperm)
a triploid cell that develops into
the nutritive tissue called Zygote (2n)
endosperm. (egg plus sperm) Figure 38.6
From Ovule to Seed
• After double fertilization
– Each ovule develops into a seed
– The ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s)

Endosperm Development
• Endosperm development
– Usually precedes embryo development
• In most monocots and some eudicots

– The endosperm stores nutrients that can be used by the seedling
after germination
• In other eudicots
– The food reserves of the endosperm are completely exported to
the cotyledons

Embryo Development
• The first mitotic division of the zygote is transverse
– Splitting the fertilized egg into a basal cell and a terminal cell
Ovule
Endosperm
nucleus
Integuments
Zygote
Zygote
Terminal cell
Basal cell
Proembryo
Suspensor
Basal cell
Cotyledons
Shoot
apex
Root
Seed coat
apex
Endosperm
Figure 38.7 Suspensor

Structure of the Mature Seed
• The embryo and its food supply
– Are enclosed by a hard, protective seed coat

• In a common garden bean, a eudicot
– The embryo consists of the hypocotyl, radicle, and thick
cotyledons
Seed coat Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Cotyledons
(a) Common garden bean, a eudicot with thick cotyledons. The

fleshy cotyledons store food absorbed from the endosperm before
the seed germinates.
Figure 38.8a

• The seeds of other eudicots, such as castor beans
– Have similar structures, but thin cotyledons
Seed coat
Endosperm
Cotyledons
Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Radicle
(b) Castor bean, a eudicot with thin cotyledons. The narrow,

membranous cotyledons (shown in edge and flat views) absorb
food from the endosperm when the seed germinates.
Figure 38.8b

• The embryo of a monocot
– Has a single cotyledon, a coleoptile, and a coleorhiza
Pericarp fused
with seed coat
Scutellum
(cotyledon)
Endosperm
Epicotyl
Coleoptile
Hypocotyl
Coleorhiza
Radicle
(c) Maize, a monocot. Like all monocots, maize has only one
cotyledon. Maize and other grasses have a large cotyledon called a
scutellum. The rudimentary shoot is sheathed in a structure called
the coleoptile, and the coleorhiza covers the young root.
Figure 38.8c

From Ovary to Fruit
• A fruit
– Develops from the ovary
– Protects the enclosed seeds
– Aids in the dispersal of seeds by wind or animals

• Fruits are classified into several types
– Depending on their developmental origin
Carpels
Flower
Ovary
Stamen
Stigma
Stamen
Ovule
Pea flower Raspberry flower Pineapple inflorescence
Carpel
Each
(fruitlet) Stigma segment
develops
Seed
Ovary from the
carpel of
Stamen
one flower
Pea fruit
Raspberry fruit Pineapple fruit
(a) Simple fruit. A simple fruit (b) Aggregate fruit. An aggregate fruit (c) Multiple fruit. A multiple fruit
develops from a single carpel (or develops from many separate develops from many carpels
several fused carpels) of one flower carpels of one flower (examples: of many flowers (examples:
(examples: pea, lemon, peanut). raspberry, blackberry, strawberry). pineapple, fig).
Figure 38.9a–c
Seed Germination
• As a seed matures
– It dehydrates and enters a phase referred to as dormancy

Seed Dormancy: Adaptation for Tough Times
• Seed dormancy
– Increases the chances that germination will occur at a time and
place most advantageous to the seedling
• The breaking of seed dormancy

– Often requires environmental cues, such as temperature or
lighting cues

From Seed to Seedling
• Germination of seeds depends on the physical process called
imbibition
– The uptake of water due to low water potential of the dry seed

• The radicle
– Is the first organ to emerge from the germinating seed
• In many eudicots
– A hook forms in the hypocotyl, and growth pushes the hook above
ground
Foliage leaves
Cotyledon
Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Cotyledon
Hypocotyl Cotyledon
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Seed coat
(a) Common garden bean. In common garden
beans, straightening of a hook in the
Figure 38.10a hypocotyl pulls the cotyledons from the soil.

• Monocots
– Use a different method for breaking ground when they germinate
• The coleoptile
– Pushes upward through the soil and into the air
Foliage leaves
Coleoptile Coleoptile
Radicle
(b) Maize. In maize and other grasses, the shoot grows
Figure 38.10b straight up through the tube of the coleoptile.

Many flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually or both
• Many angiosperm species
– Reproduce both asexually and sexually
• Sexual reproduction
– Generates the genetic variation that makes evolutionary adaptation possible
• Asexual reproduction in plants
– Is called vegetative reproduction
– offspring are derived from a single parent without any fusion of egg & sperm
– Result in a clone – an individual genetically identical to its parent.
– common in angiosperms & for some species it is the main mode of
reproduction.

Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction FRAGMENTATION
• Plant asexual reproduction is typically an extension of the capacity

for indeterminate growth
Growth is sustained or renewed indefinitely by meristems
parenchyma cells thruout the plant can divide & differentiate into
more specialized types of cells –regeneration of lost parts.

1. FRAGMENTATION
– Is the separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole plants
– Is one of the most common modes of asexual reproduction
– In some species: root system of a single parent gives rise to many
adventitious shoots that become separate shoot systems
Figure 38.11
2. APOMIXIS
– Production of seeds without pollination or fertilization.
– a diploid cell in the ovule gives rise to the embryo & the ovules mature
into seeds
– plants clone themselves by an asexual process but have the advantage of
seed dispersal, usually associated with sexual reproduction
– Important to plant breeders as it would allow hybrid plants to pass desirable
genomes intact to offspring.
Figure 38.11
Advantages & Disadvantages of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
sexual reproduction
asexual reproduction
• plant passes on only half of its alleles
• no need for a pollinator
• production of enormous numbers of seeds
• allows plant to pass on all its
compensates for odds against individual survival
genetic legacy intact to its
& gives natural selection ample genetic
progeny
variations to screen
• Vegetative reproduction have
• May be an expensive means of reproduction
progenies that are stronger
(resources consumed in flowering & fruiting)
than seedlings produced by
sexual reproduction • can be advantageous in unstable environments
• genotypic uniformity of • seeds facilitate the dispersal of offspring to more
asexually produced plants puts distant locations
them at great risk of local • seed dormancy allows growth to be suspended
extinction during catastrophic until environmental conditions become more
environmental change favorable
Totipotency, Vegetative Reproduction & Tissue Culture
TOTIPOTENT
• any multicellular cell that can divide & asexually generate a clone of
the original organism
• found in many plants, but not exclusively in meristematic tissues
• underlies most of the techniques used by humans to clone plants
• Humans have devised various methods for asexual propagation of
angiosperms

Vegetative Propagation
 Anthropogenic facilitated or induced vegetative reproduction
 Many kinds of plants asexually reproduced from plant

fragments called CUTTINGS
 Most commonly used are shoot cuttings from which
adventitious roots form
 Can start from callus - mass of dividing,
undifferentiated totipotent cells at the end of shoot
called
 Or node – no callus stage

Vegetative Propagation
 GRAFTING – a modification of vegetative reproduction from cuttings
– a severed shoot (twig/bud) from one plant is permanently joined to the
truncated stem of another
 limited to closely related individuals to combine best qualities of different
species / varieties
 Stock - plant that provides the roots
 Scion - twig grafted onto the stock whose genes determine quality of fruit
callus formation completes the

cell
between adjoining functional unification
differentiation
cut ends of scion of the grafted
& stock individuals
Test-Tube Cloning and Related Techniques
• Plant biologists have adopted in vitro methods
– To create and clone novel plant varieties
(a) Just a few parenchyma cells from a (b) The callus differentiates into an entire
carrot gave rise to this callus, a mass plant, with leaves, stems, and roots.
of undifferentiated cells.
Figure 38.12a, b
Plant Tissue Culture
 culturing small pieces of plant tissue on an artificial medium containing nutrients &
hormones
 Importance
1. eliminates weakly pathogenic viruses
from vegetatively propagated varieties -
virus-free apical meristems are excised &
used to produce virus-free material for
tissue culture
2. facilitates genetic engineering – small
pieces of plant tissue or single plant cells
as starting materials
3. makes it possible to regenerate
genetically modified (GM) plants from a
single plant cell into which the foreign
DNA has been incorporated.
• In a process called protoplast fusion
– Researchers fuse protoplasts, plant cells with their cell walls
removed, to create hybrid plants
Figure 38.13 50 m
Artificial Selection
• Humans have intervened
– In the reproduction and genetic makeup of plants for thousands of
years
• Maize
– Is a product of artificial selection by humans
– Is a staple in many developing countries, but is a poor source of
protein
Figure 38.14

Plant Breeding
• Interspecific hybridization of plants
– Is common in nature and has been used by breeders, ancient
and modern, to introduce new genes
• art & science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce

desired characteristics
• Desirable traits occasionally arise spontaneously thru mutation is
too slow & unreliable
• hasten mutations by treating large batches of seeds or seedlings
with radiation or chemicals.

Plant Breeding
• traditional plant breeding - wild species is crossed with a

domesticated variety
 1st generation offspring possesses both desirable & undesirable
traits for agriculture
 continued crossing with members of the domesticated species
until progeny with desired wild trait resemble the original
domesticated parent
• most breeders cross-pollinate plants of a single species but some
rely on hybridization between two distant species of the same genus

Plant Biotechnology and genetic engineering
Plant biotechnology has two meanings
– It refers to innovations in the use of plants to make products
of use to humans
– It refers to the use of genetically modified (GM) organisms in
agriculture and industry

Plant Biotechnology and genetic engineering
Genetic Engineering
• modern plant biotechnologists use genetic engineering techniques
that are not limited to the transfer of genes between closely related
species or genera
• allows gene transfers quickly, easily & without the need for
intermediate species
TRANSGENIC – an organism that has been engineered to contain
DNA from another organism of the same or a different species

Reducing World Hunger and Malnutrition
• Genetically modified plants
– Have the potential of increasing the quality and quantity of food
worldwide
Genetically modified rice
Ordinary rice
Figure 38.15 Figure 38.16
Reducing World Hunger and Malnutrition
• Increased crop yield – requiring less capital, land area & resources
• Increased nutritional quality
 E.g.: Golden Rice,” a transgenic variety supplemented with transgenes that
enable it to produce grain with increased levels of betacarotene, a precursor
of vitamin A
• Enhanced resistance to disease
 E.g: transgenic papaya that is resistant to a ring spot virus
Transgenic cassava
plants have been
developed with root
masses twice the normal
size containing almost
no cyanide producing
chemicals & greatly
increased levels of iron
and betacarotene

Reducing Fossil Fuel Dependency
• Many scientists predict that BIOFUELS — fuels derived from

living biomass—could produce a sizable fraction of the world’s
energy needs.
 Biomass –total mass of organic matter in a group of
organisms in a particular habitat
• use of plant biofuels would reduce the net emission of CO2
• Biofuel crops reabsorb by photosynthesis the CO2 emitted when
biofuels are burned, creating a cycle that is carbon neutral

The Debate over Plant Biotechnology
• There are some biologists, particularly ecologists
– Who are concerned about the unknown risks associated with
the release of GM organisms (GMOs) into the environment
– Can GMOs harm the environment or human health?

Issues of Human Health
1. One concern is that genetic engineering may transfer allergens from a
gene source to a plant used for food
• biotechnologists are already removing genes coding allergenic
proteins from soybeans & other crops
• Currently, there is no credible evidence that GM plants designed for
human consumption have allergenic effects on human health
2. impact of GMOs on health of farmworkers, many of whom were
commonly exposed to high levels of chemical insecticides prior to the
adoption of Bt crops
• decrease insecticide use results to reduction in number of acute
poisoning cases involving farmers
Possible Effects on Nontarget Organisms
• Many ecologists are concerned that the growing of GM crops
– Might have unforeseen effects on nontarget organisms

Addressing the Problem of Transgene Escape
• Perhaps the most serious concern that some scientists raise about GM
crops
– Is the possibility of the INTRODUCED GENES escaping from a
transgenic crop into related weeds through crop-to-weed hybridization
• Fear of spontaneous hybridization between a crop engineered for
herbicide resistance & a wild relative might give rise to a “SUPERWEED”
that would have a selective advantage over other weeds in the wild and
would be much more difficult to control in the field
• GMO advocates points that likelihood of transgene escape depends on
the ability of the crop and weed to hybridize and on how the transgenes
affect the overall fitness of the hybrids

• Despite all the issues associated with GM crops
– The benefits should be considered
• Technological advances almost always involve some risk of
unintended outcomes
• Discussions & decisions should be based on sound scientific
information and rigorous testing rather than on reflexive fear or blind
optimism

Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology: Powerpoint Lectures For

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology: Powerpoint Lectures For

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Chapter 38

Angiosperm Reproduction and

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

brightly colored to attract

becomes seed if fertilized

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 have all four basic  lacks sepals, petals, stamens or

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– can vary in size, Sunflower

time of opening Radial symmetry

– may be borne singly Fused petals

or arranged in showy REPRODUCTIVE VARIATIONS

Long-nosed bat feeding

Moth on yucca flower

Blowfly on carrion flower Common dandelion normal (left) &

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(microspore mother cells).

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Pin flower Thrum flower

• Researchers are unraveling the molecular mechanisms that are

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Recognition of self pollen

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The pollen tube

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2 The pollen tube Ovule

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• In most monocots and some eudicots

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Seed coat Epicotyl

(a) Common garden bean, a eudicot with thick cotyledons. The

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(b) Castor bean, a eudicot with thin cotyledons. The narrow,

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The breaking of seed dormancy

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Plant asexual reproduction is typically an extension of the capacity

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Many kinds of plants asexually reproduced from plant

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

callus formation completes the

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• art & science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• traditional plant breeding - wild species is crossed with a

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings