Escolar Documentos
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SILABUS :
Konsep penelitian yang banyak digunakan dalam lingkup berbagai Bidang Ilmu,
mulai dari mencari masalah, membuat proposal, pengumpulan data, peru-
musan hipotesis, pembuatan model dan perancangan eksperimen. Penulisan dan
diseminasi hasil penelitian.
PUSTAKA :
1. Jill Hussey, Roger Hussey,”Business Research”, MacMillan Press, Ltd., 1997.
2. Donald R. Cooper, Pamela S. Schindler,” Business Research Method” McGrawHil
2003.
3. Ronald C. Martella, Roland Nelbon, Nancy E.Marchand Martella, ”Research
Methods” , Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
4. Richard. H. McCuen,”The Elements of Academic Research”, ASCE Press, 1996.
(Opt.)
MATERI :
1. Understanding research 5. Determining the research design •Measuring association
•Definition and purpose of research •Overview of research design •Measuring differences
•Qualities of a good researcher •Identifying a research problem •Forecasting
•Types of research •Determining the purpose of the research
•Characteristics of good research projects •Developing a theoretical framework 8. Analysing qualitative data
•Defining research questions or hypothesis •Overview of qualitative data analysis
2. Dealing with practical issues •Defining terms •Quantifying methods of q.d.a
•Course requirements •Identifying limitations and delimitations •Non-quantifying nethods of q.d.a.
•Choosing an academic institution •Deciding the methodology •Evaluating the analysis
•Funding •Determining the expected outcome
•Negotiating access •Writing the research proposal 9. Writing up the project
•Ethics •Planning the research report
•Managing the research 6. Collecting original data •Content of the report
•Overview of data collection
•Presenting qualitative & quantitative data
3. Dealing with conceptual issues •Variables
•Research paradigms •Eleventh-hour strategy
•Selecting a sample
•Paradigms and methodology •Standards
•Data •The viva
•Types of research methodology •Data Collection Methods
•Positivistic methodologies •Writing papers and articles
•Designing questions
•Mixing methodologies •Coding for computer analysis 10. Trouble shooting
•Getting started
4. Searching the literatures •Recording data and observations
•Managing the research
•Generating a research topics 7. Analysing quantitative data •Identifying a research topic
•Overview of the literature search •Overview of quantitative data analysis •The research proposal
•Starting a literature search •Exploratory data analysis •Deciding the methodology
•Computerized databases •Presenting frequencies •Searching and reviewing the literature
•Recording references •Measuring location •Collecting and analyzing data
•The literature review •Measuring dispersion •Writing the research report
•Measuring change Achieving the standards
•Confirmatory data analysis
•Estimating from samples
I. Research ??
R e – Search
Perseverance
Motivation Information
technology skills
Organisational skills
Communication skills
needed when :
• applying for funding
•discussing your project with your supervisor
• negotiating acess to sources of data
• conducting interviews
• designing a questionnaire
• leading a locus group
• writing and presenting conference papers
• writing your report
• writing academic journal articles
Intellectual Skills (Bloom)
• Knowledge
• Comprehension
• Application
• Analysis
• Synthesis
• Evaluation
Time Management
Table 1.1 Qualities of competent researchers
Knowledge Skills Personal qualities
Awareness of different Ability to plan, organise Awareness of own
assumptions about the and manage own time strengths, weaknesses and
world values
Ability to search libraries
Awareness of methods of and other sources Clarity of thought
data collection
Ability to gain support Sensitivity to events and
Awareness of different and cooperation from feelings
methodologies others
Emotional resilience
Knowledge of immediate Ability to structure and
subject of study argue a case in writing
Flexibility
Knowledge of related Ability to defend and
subjects/disciplines argue views orally
Creativity
Knowledge of key Ability to learn from
networks and contacts in experience
chosen field
Descriptive research A description of how the selected clerical staff are rewarded and
what measures are used to record their productivity levels
Analytical research An analysis of any relationships between the rewards given to the
clerical staff and their productivity levels
Predictive research A forecast of which variable should be changed in order to bring
about a change in the productivity levels of clerical staff
Classified based on :
EExploratory
A. Purpose : (to look for patterns, idea or hypothesis)
DDescriptive (to describe phenomena as they exist)
AAnalytical or explanatory (To explore informations continuation of descriptive reseach)
PPredictive (To provides How, Why and Where answers to current events or similar events in the
future)
B. Process :
Quantitative (objective) or qualitative (subjective )
C. Logic :
Deductive (general to particular) or inductive (specific to general)
D. Outcome :
Applied (solving a specific, existing problem), or Basic/Fundamental/pure (contribution to
knowledge)
The Research Process
•Identify research topic
•Define research problem
•Determine how to conduct research
•Collect research data
•Analyse and interpret research data
•Write dissertation thesis
Figure 1.4 Stages in the research process
Write dissertation/thesis
Table 1.4 Typical structure of a dissertation or thesis
Chapter/section Description
A critical analysis of what other have said on the subject and where
Literature review
your project fits in
Analysis and discussion An analysis of your results showing the contribution to knowledge
and pointing out any weaknesses/limitations
Conclusions A description of the main lessons to be learnt from your study and
what future research should be conducted
Analytical Descriptive
dissertation, thesis
Doctoral degree
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) Thesis
Table 2.3 Criteria to be satisfied by research reports
Level Research report Criteria
Bachelor’s degrees and some Dissertation A well-structured and convincing account of a
Master’s degrees which require study, the resolution of a problem or the
the completion of a project outcome of an experiment
Evidence of awareness of the literature
Taught Master’s degree Dissertation An ordered, critical and reasoned exposition
of knowledge gained throught the student’s
efforts
A comprehensive review of the literature
Master’s degree by research Thesis Evidence of an original investigation or the
testing of ideas
Competence in independent work or
experimentation
An understanding of appropriate techniques
Ability to make critical use of published work
and source materials
Appreciation of the relationship of the special
theme to the wider field of knowledge
Early enthusiasm
Determination to finish
with original problem
Setting a timetable
Minimum Maximum
M.Phil. thesis
Full-time 18 months 36 months
Part-time 30 months 48 months
Ph.D. thesis (transfer)
Full-time 33 months 60 months
Part-time 45 months 72 months
Ph.D. thesis (direct)
Full-time 24 months 60 months
Part-time 36 months 72 months
Table 2.5 Approximate time allowances for main stages of research
Identifying topic 15
Identifying research problem 10
Determine how to conduct research 10
Collecting research data 20
Analysing and interpreting research data 20
Writing dissertation or thesis 25
Total 100
Organising materials
Networking
Keeping records
Dealing With Conceptual Issues
Phenomenological Positivistic
PARADIGM
Methodology
Experience
Methods
PURPOSE
Data Data
analysis collection
Outcome Outcome
Exploratory Descriptive
Knowledge
Analytical Prescriptive
Figure 4.2 Example of a relevance tree.
Communication
Workplace Social
Reference books :
Literature search The process of exploring the existing literature to ascertain what
has been written or otherwise published on a particular subject
Published bibliography A list of books which are currently in print or which have been
published in the past
References A detailed, alphabetical (Harvard System) or numerical
(Vancouver System) list of the sources from which information
has been obtained and which have been cited in the text of a
document
Relevance tree A diagram which can be used as a device for generating research
topics and develops clusters of related ideas from a fairly broad
starting concept
Research design The science and art of planning procedures for conducting
studies
Research problem The specific problem or issue which will be addressed by the
research
Research proposal The document which sets out the research design for a study
Term Definition
Research questions The specific questions which the research will attempt
to answer
Define terms
Decide methodology
4. Test feasibility
Table 5.1 Assessing availability of data
Type of data Source
The literature Check in relevant libraries and databases
Official statistics Official statistics are available covering almost every conceivable
topic, if you know where to look. Refer to the official guides to
published statistics
Industry data You may need background information about a particular industry.
Check in libraries for publications such as the Mintel Keynote
Reports
In-company data This is one of the most difficult areas to assess. List exactly what
information you will require and get official approval, preferably in
writing. Do not try to use back door methods of getting information
from your brother’s girlfriend’s uncle who happens to work in the
accounts department!
People How many will you need to see? Do you know them already?
Have you the necessary interview skills to get what you want?
Have you enough time?
Surveys Where will you find a population of suitable respondents? How will
you contact them? What response rate could you expect?
Therefore, how many questionnaires will you have to send out to
get a reasonable number of replies?
Table 5.2 Examples of business research problems
Research topic Research problem or issue
Accounting regulations Should accounting practices be regulated by
the government or by the accounting
profession?
Equal emplyment opportunities for How do career break schemes contribute to the
women recruitment and retention of skilled female
staff?
Public service announcements as a How effective are public service
method of communication announcements as a vehicle for communicating
with students?
Figure 5.4 Simple model of a positivistic purpose statement
The purpose of this …………….(experimental? survey?) study ……………(is? was? will? be?)
to test the theory of ………… that …………. (compares? relates?) the ………… (independent
variable) to ……………… (dependent variable) for ……………….. (subject? sample?) at
….………. (research site). The independent variable(s) ………….. will be defined generally as
………….. (provide general definition). The dependent variable(s) will be defined generally as
………….. (provide general definitions), and the intervening variable(s), …………….. (identify
the intervening variables) will be statistically controlled in the study.
The purpose of this study ………. (is? was? will? be?) to ………. (understand? describe?
develop? discover?) the …………… (central concept being studied) for ……………. (the unit of
analysis: a person? process? groups? site?) using a ……………. (method of phenomenological
design?) resulting in a …………….. (cultural picture? grounded theory? case study?
phenomenological description of themes or patterns?). At this stage in the research the
…………. (central concept being studied) will be defined generally as ……………. (provide a
general definition of the central concept).
Source: Creswell (1994) p. 59.
Table 5.3 Units of analysis
Move on to next
stage of research 1. State purpose of
design the research
Yes
No
5. Have questions 2. Formulate specific
been answered questions or
already? hypotheses
Methods
Diaries
Focus groups
Interviews
Observation
Protocol analysis
Questionnaires
Figure 6.1 Overview of the data collection process
Select sample
Collect data
Table 6.2 Qualitative and quantitative variables
Example
Population: 300
Sample size: 10
First divide the population by the required sample size:
300 = 30
10
Start by selecting a randomly chosen number between 1 and 30, say 23. Then choose the
thirtieth one after that until ten have been selected:
23, 53, 83, 113, 143, 173, 203, 233, 263, 293
Figure 6.4 Stratified sampling
Example
580 270
x 100 = 68 females and x 100 = 32 males
850 850
Advantages Disadvantages
Nominal √ √
Ordinal √
Interval √ √
Ratio √ √
Figure 8.1 Overview of the main challenges to qualitative data analysis
1. Reducing the data: Data reduction is a form of analysis that sharpens, sorts, focuses, discards and
reorganises data in such a way that ‘final’ conclusions can be drawn and verified (Miles and Huberman,
1994, p. 11). In a phenomenological study you will have collected a mass of field notes, documents,
transcripts of interviews, etc., which must be condensed and made manageable. One solution is to find a
systematic way of summarising the data and this usually involves some form of coding.
2. Structuring the data: Often the data is collected in a chronological structure, which may not be the
most suitable form for its analysis. If you have commenced your study with a theoretical framework,
this will provide a structure and may give an a priori (pre-existing) specification of categories into
which data can be fitted. If there is no pre-existing structure, a suitable one may emerge during the data
collection phase.
Anticipatory data reduction can occur where the researcher has constructed some particular
theoretical framework or highly structured research instrument which will result in certain data being
ignored. You will remember from Chapter 5 that a theoretical framework is a collection of theories and
models from the literature which underpins a positivistic research study (research instrument is an
alternative term for certain data collection methods).
Anticipatory data reduction is not usually recommended in a phenomenological study as it restricts
deep understanding and the collection of rich data.
3. Detextualising the data: Most qualitative data is collected in the form of extended text. This may
not be the most suitable form for analysis or presentation to varlous audiences. Therefore, it may be
more appropriate to convert the text into diagrams and illustrations for analysis and presentation.
Table 8.1 Main methods of analysing qualitative data
Plans, proposal and Work programme and timeliness, proposal, budget for
budget personnel level, payroll and non-payroll
Constructing a plan that details not only the content of the finished 84
piece, but also the order in which it will be presented
Presentational forms
· Tables, graphs and other illustrations should relate to the text so that the information is supported by the different
representations.
· To maintain the interest of the reader, a variety of presentations should be used, as dictated by the type of data (for
example, interval or continuous) and the purpose (for example, for comparison).
Table 9.2 Approximate length of research reports
Total 100
Figure 9.2 Example of how to structure and number chapters
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background to the study
1.2 Overview of financial reporting
1.3 Aims of the study
1.4 Definition of terms
1.5 Structure of the thesis
24
Total
Figure 9.4 Guide to starting the introduction
1. Use an approprite quotation. This has the advantage of taking the reader
directly into the topic. The subsequent sentences can either support or refute
the quotation. However, you must make certain that the quotation is
applicable to your topic and does lead on to the development of an argument.
2. Pose a question which draws the reader into your discussion. This has the
advantage that you can word the question to best fit the arguments you wish
to present.
3. Use an illustration. If carefully chosen, this can capture your reader’s
interest immediately.
2. A description of the source and number of subjects in the study. This will require a
description of the population and your sampling procedure (see Chapter 6).
4. A description of the data ccollection method(s) (see Chapter 6) you have adopted:
how, where and when you collected the data. It is sometimes helpful to incorporate a
chronological flow chart in this section.
5. A description of the methods of data analysis (see Chapter 7) you have used, why
they were appropriate given the nature of your hypotheses, the number of
independent and dependent variables and the level of measurement of each of the
variables.
Figure 9.7 Phenomenological studies: guide to writing the methodology
1. Explain how your paradigm (see Chapter 3) is appropriate to the research topic.
2. If you have a theoretical framework (see Chapter 5), explain how it relates to the research
problem and guides the research.
3. Explain the place of the methodological (see Chapter 3) within your paradigm, its nature and
development, making reference to any similar studies which have adopted it. As there are
variations within a phenomenological approach, it is useful to quote a number of definitions of
the methodology you are using, explain the main features, your own position and justify your
choice.
4. Describe the data collection method(s) (see Chapter 6) you have used, their strengths and
weaknesses, and justify your choice by referring to the alternatives you considered but thought
were unsuitable. You should state where the data was collected, from whom and why. Data
collection will normally have taken place over a period of time, so it is helful to include a
timetable showing when specific activities took place and any critical events which occurred.
5. Describe the data analysis method(s) you have used at a very general level (see Chapter 8).
This is sometimes difficult, but you should emphasise the main features and leave the discussion
of the details until the ‘Results’ chapter.
6. In some studies you will also need to include a discussion on validity and reliability (see
Chapter 6). There are differences of opinion on this and you should seek guidance from your
supervisor. If there is uncertainty, we consider it prudent to discuss issues of verification,
generalisability and the limitations of the study.
Figure 9.8 Guide to writing the analysis and discussion chapter
The chapter should be divided into the following main sections: