MEASUREMENTS

AND
INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1
BASIC MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
 Measurement systems
 Static and dynamic characteristics
 Units and standards of measurements
 Error analysis
 Moving coil meters
 Moving iron meters
 Multimeters
 Bridge measurements
 Maxwell
 Hay
 Schering
 Anderson
 Wien bridge.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT
 Importance of Measurement is simply and
eloquently expressed in the following
statement of famous physicist Lord Kelvin:

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“I often say that when you can measure
what you are speaking about and can
express it in numbers, you know something
about it; when you cannot express in it
numbers your knowledge is of meager and
unsatisfactory kind”

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
INTRODUCTION
 Measurement means, to monitor a process or a
operation and using an instrument, express the
parameter, quantity or a variable in terms of
meaningful numbers.

 Measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the

act or result of a quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be
measured.

 There are 2 basic requirements:

 The comparison standard is accurately defined and
commonly accepted , and
 The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the
comparison must be provable.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 EVOLUTION OF INSTRUMENTS.

a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
Electronic Instruments.

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c)

MECHANICAL:
These instruments are very reliable for
static and stable conditions. But their
disadvantage is that they are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic
and transient conditions.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
CONTD
 ELECTRICAL:
It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output
are rapid than mechanical methods. But it depends on

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the mechanical movement of the meters. The response
is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

 ELECTRONIC:
It is more reliable than other system. It uses
semiconductor devices and weak signal can also be
detected.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Measuring instrument:
It is defined as the device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable.

 Electronic measurement:
 It is the one which is based on electronic or electrical
principles for its measurement function.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC
MEASUREMENT
 Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers
into the electrical or electronic signals.
 Electronic signals can be amplified, filtered,
multiplexed, sampled and measured.
 Measured signals can be transmitted over long
distance through cables or radio links, without any
loss of information.
 Many measurements can be done simultaneously or in
rapid succession.
 Electronic circuits can measure the events of very
short duration
 Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a
higher degree of reliability are the important features
of electronic instruments and measurements.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN
INSTRUMENT
Data Storage
&playback
element

Primary Variable Variable Data Data observer

Sensing Conversion manipulation Transmission presentation
element element element element element
Quantity
To be measured

Data conditioning element

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Primary Sensing Element:
An element of an instrument which makes first
contact with the quantity to be measured. In most cases
a Transducer follows primary sensing element which
converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical
signal.

 Variable Conversion Element:

output of the primary sensing element is in
electrical form such as Voltage, Frequency….such an
o/pt may not be suitable for the actual measurement
system. (Ex: A/D converter)

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Variable Manipulation Element:
The level of the o/pt from the previous stage may
not be enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable
manipulation element manipulates the signal,
preserving the original nature of the signal.

 Data Transmission Element:

When the elements of the system are physically
separated, it is necessary to transmit the data from
one stage to other. This is achieved by the data
transmission element.

 Data Presentation Element:

The data is monitored, for analyzing purpose using
data presentation element.(Ex: Visual display)
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
EXAMPLE

 Moving coil senses current

 Magnets & coil convert current in coil to force

 Force is transmitted to pointer through mechanical

links
 Pointer and scale presents the current value
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AMMETER

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

 Static characteristics: The set of criteria defined for

the instruments, which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or
mostly constant, ie., do not vary with time is called
static characteristics

 Dynamic characteristics: when the quantity under

measurement changes rapidly with time, it is
necessary to study the dynamic relations existing b/w
i/pt and o/pt which is expressed as differential
equations
 The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic
differential equation is called dynamic characteristics

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CALIBRATION
 Calibration is the process of making an
adjustment or making a scale so that the reading
of an instrument agree with the accepted and
certified standard.

 Note: if the device is repaired, aged or modified

then recalibration is carried out.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
STATIC CHARACTERSTICS

 Accuracy
 Precision
 Resolution
 Error
 Sensitivity
 Threshold
 Reproducibility
 Zero drift
 Stability
 Linearity

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
ACCURACY:
DEGREE OF CLOSENESS WHICH THE INSTRUMENT READING
APPROACHES THE TRUE VALUE OF THE QUANTITY TO BE
MEASURED. IT INDICATES THE ABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT TO
INDICATE TRUE VALUE OF THE QUANTITY.

A) ACCURACY AS “% OF FULL SCALE READING”:

IF THE INSTRUMENT HAVE UNIFORM SCALE, THEN ACCURACY IS
EXPRESSED AS % OF FULL SCALE READING.

ACCURACY IS 0.1% FOR FULL SCALE OF 50 UNITS MEANS 0.05 UNITS

ERROR IS PRESENT IN ANY MEASUREMENT.

ACCURACY IS 0.2% FOR FULL SCALE OF 25 UNITS MEANS 0.05 UNITS

ERROR

THUS AS READING DECREASES ERROR IS MORE AND LEADS

MISLEADING.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
B) ACCURACY AS “% OF TRUE VALUE”:
 Best method for specifying accuracy. It is specified in terms
of true value of the quantity being measured. Eg: ±0.1% of
true value.
 As the reading gets smaller error also gets reduced. Hence
accuracy is better.

C) Accuracy as “% of scale span”:

 Maximum point on scale -Minimum point on scale is scale
span.
 For range 25-225,
 Scale span is 200
 If accuracy is 0.2% of span then, error is 0.4 units in any
measurement.

D) Point Accuracy
 It is specified at only one point of scale.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
PRECISION:
 It is the measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurement.
 It denotes the closeness with which individual
measurements are departed or distributed
about the average of numbers of measured
values.
 High precision may not have high accurate

Types:
 conformity
 Number of significant figures.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
Conformity:
Error created due to limitation of scale reading is a
precision error.

Ex: resistor of value 2385692Ω is read as 2.4MΩ.

Significant figures:
Precision is obtained from number of significant
figures.

Ex: 110 ohms can be specified as 109 or 111 thus 3

significant figures.
If it is specified as 110.0 then it may be 110.1 or 109.9
Thus there are 4 significant figures.

Greater the significant figure greater is the precision.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
Error:
The algebraic difference between the indicated value
and the true value of the quantity to be measured is
called an error.
Error of 1 ut is negligible when measure in order of 1000 ut
Error of 1 ut is significant when measure in order of 5 ut
e = At – Am , where
e – error (or) absolute error
Am – measured value of quantity
At – true value of quantity

Note: instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or

percentage of error is specified.

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 Relative error:

absolute error

True value

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 Sensitivity:
The ratio of the change in output of an instrument
to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.

Note: if the calibration curve is linear, then sensitivity

of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 For manufactures

 Reciprocal of sensitivity is called inverse sensitivity or

deflection factor.
 unit: sensitivity – mm/µA, mm/Ω, counts/V etc;
 Deflection meter - µA/mm, Ω/mm, V/counts etc;
 Sensitivity should be high, to achieve this the range of the
instrument should not exceed the value to be measured.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Resolution means smallest measurable input change.

 Threshold:
If the i/pt is slowly varied from zero, the o/pt does not
change until some minimum value of the i/pt is exceeded. This
minimum value of the i/pt is called threshold.

 Threshold is the smallest measurable i/pt.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
LINEARITY
THE CLOSENESS TO WHICH A CURVE APPROXIMATES A
STRAIGHT LINE.

DEFINITION: IT IS DEFINED AS THE MAXIMUM DEVIATION OF THE

ACTUAL CALIBRATION CURVE (O/PT) FROM THE IDEALIZED ST.LINE,
EXPRESSED AS A % OF FULL SCALE READING OR A % OF THE ACTUAL
READING.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Zero drift:
The deviation in the instrument output with
time from its zero value, when the variable
to be measured is a constant.

 Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given
value may be repeatedly measured.

Reproducibility and repeatability are a

measure of the closeness with which a given i/pt
may be measured again and again.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Stability:

Ability of an instrument to retain its

performance throughout its specified
operating life and the storage life.
Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the
measurement is specified interms of some
value which is called tolerance.
Bias:
The constant error which exists over the
full range of measurement of an
instrument is called bias.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
Hysteresis
If the i/pt to the instrument
is increased from a negative
value, the o/pt also increases :
curve 1

If the curve is decreased

steadily, the o/pt does not
follow the same curve but lags
by certain value: curve 2

Difference b/w two curves is

called HYSTERESIS.
The noncoincidence of loading
and unloading curves
Dead space: Range of i/pt
values were there is no change
in o/pt is called dead space.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Speed of response
 Fidelity

 Lag

 Dynamic error
STANDARD VARIATIONS IN I/PT ARE

 Sudden, instantaneous and finite change in the input.

 i/pt -> Au(t)

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 Linear change in i/pt. it changes at a constant rate wrt
time.
 i/pt -> At u(t)

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 i/pt is proportional to the square of the time & hence
represents constant acceleration
 i/pt -> At2 u(t)

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 It exist only at t=0 & zero otherwise
 Area under it is its magnitude and if its unity it is
called delta function δ(t)

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 i/pt which changes in acco9rdance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude. Frequency is the
independent variable in this case.

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 Speed of response:
It gives information about how fast the system
reacts to the changes in the input.

 Fidelity:
it is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates
the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error.

 Lag:
Delay in the response of a system.
retardation lag: response of the system begins immediately
after a change in the variable has occurred.
time delay: response begins after some time called dead time,
after the application of input.

 Dynamic error
• Difference between the true value of the variable to be
measured changing with time and the value indicated
by the measurement system assuming zero static error
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 UNITS
 It is necessary to specify type & magnitude for
the reading. Where unit represents the type of
the physical quantity and reading on the
instrument represents its magnitude

 Different system of units are

 M.K.S

 C.G.S

 S.I (system international units)

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 UNITS
 The S.I system of units is divided into 3 categories

 Fundamental units
 Supplementary units

 Derived units

Fundamental units:
units which are independently chosen and not
dependent on any other units are called fundamental
units or base units
Ex: meter (m), kilogram (Kg), second (s), Ampere (A)

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
 Supplementary units:
 Radian for the plane angle: (θ,Φ)
Plane angle subtended by an arc of a circle equal in
length to the radius of the circle.

 Steradian for the solid angle: (θs,Φs)

Angle subtended at the center of the sphere by the
surface whose area is equal to the square of the radius of
the sphere.

 Derived units:
These units are derived from fundamental and
supplementary units
Ex: velocity- m/s, acceleration- m/s2, force- Newton(N)
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
A standard of measurement is a physical representation
of a unit of measurement.

A standard means known accurate measure of physical

quantity.
ex: unit of mass: Kg

Kilogram is defined as the mass of cubic decimeter of

water as its temperature of maximum density of 4
degree Celsius

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TYPES OF STANDARDS

1. International standards
2. Primary standards
3. Secondary standards
4. Working standards

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
 These standards are maintained at the international
bureau of weights and measures and are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements.

 These standards are not available for ordinary users for

calibration.

 For accuracy they are replaced by absolute units which

are more accurate than international standards.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
PRIMARY STANDARDS
 They are maintained at national standard laboratories
in different countries.

 These standards represents fundamental units as well

as electrical and mechanical derived units calibrated by
absolute measurements at each national laboratories.

 used for calibration and verification of secondary

standards.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
SECONDARY STANDARDS
 Since primary standards are not available for outside
users, various industries need some reference.

 They are used by measurement and calibration

laboratories and are maintained by the particular
industry to which they belong.

 Each industry has its own standards.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
WORKING STANDARDS

 These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory

 use to check and calibrate for accuracy.

 ex: resistor industry maintains a standard resistor for

checking the values of manufactured resistors.

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ERRORS

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Faulty design of instrument
2. Insufficient knowledge of quantity and
design conditions
3. Improper maintenance of the
instrument.
4. Sudden change in the parameter to be
measured.
5. Unskilled operator
6. Effects of environmental conditions.
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TYPES OF ERRORS
static errors are classified as,
1. Gross error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error

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GROSS ERROR: (PERSONAL ERRORS)
 Occurs due to carelessness of human while
reading, recording and calculating results.
 Due to incorrect adjustments of instruments.

 To eliminate error:
 Take care while reading, recording and
calculating results.
 Take 3 or more readings with 3 or more
persons.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
SYSTEMATIC ERROR
 A constant uniform deviation of operation in
instruments known as systematic error.
 Due to short comings and characteristics of the
material used in instrument like worn parts, ageing
effects etc;

 Types:
a) Instrumental error
b) Environmental error
c) Observational error

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR
 shortcomings of instrument:
Due to mechanical structure of the
instruments.
Ex: Friction in bearings,
Irregular spring tension,
variation in air gap.

To eliminate error:
1. select proper instrument and select proper
procedure.
2. Identify effect of errors and correct it.
3. Calibrate the instrument.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
Misuse of instruments:
Ex: poor initial adjustments
improper zero setting
using leads of high resistance

Loading effects:
Ex: connecting a well calibrated voltmeter
across the 2 points of high resistance
circuit.

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR
They are due to
 temperature changes
 pressure changes
 thermal e.m.f
 stray capacitance
 cross capacitance

 To eliminate error:
1. proper correction factors given by the
manufacturer.
2. make arrangements to keep surrounding constant
like using A.C.
3. sealing the components to avoid dust, humidity.
4. providing magnetic or electrostatic shields.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
OBSERVATIONAL ERROR
errors made by observers
Ex: parallax error while reading a
meter, wrong scale selection

 To eliminate error:
1. use instruments with mirrors.
2. knife edged pointers.
R.JhansiRani AP/ECE
RANDOM ERROR
Causes of errors which are unknown are
random errors.

 Due to accumulation of large number of

small effects
 They cannot be corrected by any method.
 use statistical methods to obtain best
approximation of reading.

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ERROR ANALYSIS

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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Arithmetic mean and median:
mean:

Median:

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 Deviation from mean:

 Average deviation (mean deviation):

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 Standard deviation:

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 Variance:
mean square deviation

R.JhansiRani AP/ECE