UGEB2363

Biochemistry and
Physical Activities
Metabolism at rest and during
physical activities
 Textbooks

Pages 7-41; Pages 351-352; Pages 97-111;

1,024-1,043 173-184;
259-261;
 Contents in brief
1) Metabolic reactions (代謝反應)
2) Carbohydrate metabolism (糖代謝)
3) Lipid metabolism (脂肪代謝)
4) Protein metabolism (蛋白質代謝)
5) Basal metabolic rate (基礎代謝率)
6) Conservation of energy by coupling with
ATP (三磷酸腺苷酶；苷，音金)
7) Mitochondrial (線粒體) synthesis of ATP
from reduced coenzymes (還原型輔酶)
 Contents in brief 2
8) The mitochondrial electron transport
system (線粒體電子傳遞系統)
9) Transfer of electrons from NADH into
mitochondria
10) Synthesis of ATP: the chemiosmotic (化學
滲透) hypothesis
11) Types of skeletal muscle fibres
12) Muscle energy metabolism
Major metabolic pathways for
energy release
 Metabolic reactions
Metabolism
 Biochemical reactions of life
 Divided into anabolism and catabolism
Anabolism (合成代謝)
 Simple organic molecules  complex
 Endergonic: energy consuming

Catabolism (分解代謝)
 Complex organic molecules  simple
 Exergonic (放能): energy releasing
 Examples: glycolysis (糖酵解), citric acid cycle (檸檬酸
循環), electron transport system (電子傳遞系統), etc
 Carbohydrate metabolism
Carbohydrate (碳水化合物)
 Polysaccharides (多醣), disaccharides (二糖), etc
 Hydrolyzed (水解) to monosaccharides, eg. glucose
(~80%)

Glucose (葡萄糖)
 Preferred source for ATP synthesis
 Starting point of glycolysis

Glucose into cells

 Glucose transporter (GluT) molecule
(Photo credit: wikimedia)
Glucose catabolism
 Cellular respiration (呼吸作用): oxidation (氧化)
of glucose  ATP synthesis
 Glycolysis (糖酵解)
 Acetyl coenzyme A (CoA 乙酰輔酶 A)
formation
 Citric acid cycle (檸檬酸循環)
 Mitochondrial electron (e-) transport
system (線粒體電子傳遞系統)
 Glycolysis in cytosol (細胞質)
 6-Carbon glucose  2 3-carbon pyruvic acid (丙酮酸)
 Net ATP synthesis
 Insufficient O2 supply: pyruvic acid  lactic acid (乳酸)
 Sufficient O2 supply: pyruvic acid  acetyl CoA
(Photo credit: ORACLE Education Foundation)
Glucose catabolism 2
Formation of acetyl CoA (乙
酰輔酶 A)

Citric acid cycle (檸檬酸

循環) in mitochondrial
matrix
 Acetyl CoA enters citric acid
cycle
 Produce ‘reduced coenzymes’
(還原型輔酶) + CO2 + ATP
 Glucose catabolism 3
Mitochondrial electron transport system
 A series of membrane-associated e- carrier proteins
 Reduced coenzymes carry e- to enter the system
 e- passing through the carriers  exergonic (放能)
reactions
 H+ gradient  ATP synthesis
 Citric acid cycle

Inter-conversion point of
metabolites

物資交匯處
 Citric acid cycle
Citric acid cycle: inter-conversion point for many
metabolites
 Carbohydrates (glucose)  citric acid cycle
 Fatty acids  citric acid cycle
 Some amino acids  citric acid cycle

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

 Citric acid cycle 2

Acetyl CoA: common

metabolic of various
pathways
 Glycolysis (糖酵解) 
acetyl CoA (乙酰輔酶 A)
 Fatty acid -oxidation (脂
肪酸氧化)  acetyl
CoA
 Amino acids  pyruvate
or acetyl CoA

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

 Citric acid cycle

(Photo credit: wikipedia)

 Mitochondrial electron
transport system

Electron  Proton gradient  ATP

Mitochondrial synthesis of ATP
from reduced coenzymes
Mitochondria
 Essential for aerobic metabolism (有氧代謝)
 Permeable (可滲透) outer membranes
 Impermeable (不可滲透) inner membranes with
cristae (嵴)

Energy from reduced coenzymes to ATP

 e- transferred from carbohydrates/lipids to coenzymes
 E.g. NADH + H+ + ½O2  NAD+ + H2O [-52.4
kcal/mol]
 NADH: reduced coenzyme
 The mitochondrial electron
transport system
e- transported through
mitochondrial inner membrane
carriers

Consume O2 to form H2O

Pump H+ from matrix to

intermembrane space  H+
gradient
(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)
The mitochondrial electron
transport system 2
Complex V
ATP synthase (合成
酶)
H+ flow from
intermembrane
space to matrix 
ATP generation
ADP + Pi  ATP

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

Mitochondrial electron transport system

(Photo credit: Green Packs)

Lipid catabolism
 Lipid metabolism

Transport of lipids by lipoproteins (脂蛋白)

 Lipids: non-polar  carriers in blood
 Chylomicrons (乳糜微粒): transport dietary lipids
 Adipocyte (脂肪細胞) remove triglycerides in
chylomicrons and VLDLs for storage
(Photo credit: Santa Monica Community College)
 Lipid metabolism

 Transport of lipids by lipoproteins (脂蛋白)

 Lipoproteins: spherical particles with proteins
(apoproteins 載脂蛋白), phospholipids (磷脂),
cholesterol, etc
 Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs 極低密度脂
肪蛋白): transport triglycerides (甘油三酯)
 Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs 低密度脂肪蛋白):
carry ~75% of total cholesterol in blood
(Photo credit: Jumpstart MD)
 Lipid catabolism: lipolysis
Lipolysis (脂肪分解)
 Triglyceride (甘油三酯)  fatty acids (脂肪酸) +
glycerol (甘油)
 Catalyzed by lipases (脂肪酶)
 Enhanced by epinephrine (腎上腺素)/nonepinephrine
(去甲腎上腺素)

(Photo creidt: Google)

 Lipid catabolism: lipolysis 2
Fatty acid
  oxidation in mitochondrial matrix
 2-carbon molecules from fatty acid 
acetyl CoA

Glycerol
 Metabolized to
pyruvic acid to acetyl
CoA

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

Protein catabolism
 Protein metabolism
Proteins
 Digested to amino acids
 No storage
 Oxidized to produce ATP
 Synthesize new proteins
 Excess converted to glucose or triglycerides

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

 Protein metabolism 2

Protein catabolism
 Stimulated by cortisol (皮質醇)
 Proteins  amino acids
 Deamination (脱氨基作用) in liver: remove amino
group to urea
 Transamination (氨基轉移) in muscle: transfer amino
group to other amino acids (Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)
Metabolic energy
 Energy consumed by the body
Basal metabolic rate (BMR 基礎代謝率)
 Total heat energy released from the body at rest
 Sum of all exothermic (放熱) reactions at rest
 Measurement
 Direct calorimetry (量熱): total heat liberated
measured over time
 Rest without food consumption for 12 hr
 No physical activity for 2 hr
 Indirect calorimetry: calculated from the amount of
O2 consumed

(Photo credit: venuslandscape)

 Energy consumed by the body 2
Resting metabolic rate (RMR 靜止代謝率)
 Minimum energy expenditure at rest
 Slightly higher than BMR but interchangeable to BMR
 Adult men: ~1,800 kcal
 Adult women: ~1,300 kcal
 ~60 to 75% total daily energy expenditure (TDEE)

Question: if your RMR is 1,800 kcal, what

should be your range of TDEE?

(Photo credit: Fitness Health 101; Physics Central)

Energy and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Universal energy transducer in living system
 Currency of metabolic energy: drive energy-
requiring reactions
 Consist of adenine + Pi groups
 High energy bonds between Pi groups
 ATP + H2O  ADP + Pi [-7.3 kcal/mol]

ATP: a limited currency

 Small quantity in cells  limited supply
 Regeneration required
(Photo creidt: Google)
 ATP consumed by muscle
ATP required for muscle contraction
 Myosin-ATPase: myosin-actin bridge modulation
 Na+/K+-ATPase: maintain [Na+]
 Ca2+-ATPase: maintain [Ca2+]

Source of ATP in muscle

 Phosphocreatine (磷酸肌
酸)
 Anaerobic glycolysis (無氧
糖酵解)
 Aerobic metabolism (有氧
新陳代謝)
Types of skeletal muscle fibres
Types of skeletal muscle fibres

Muscle fibres vary in

 myoglobin (肌紅蛋白) content
 contraction speed
 metabolic reactions to generate ATP
 fatigue (疲勞) process

Myoglobin
 Found in sacroplasm (肌漿) of muscle fibres
 Bind/release oxygen  ATP production

(Photo credit: Ordway & Garry 2004)

Types of skeletal muscle fibres 2

Slow oxidative (SO) fibres

 Also known as Type I fibres
 Smallest in diameter  least powerful
 Myoglobin + capillaries  dark red appearance
 Large mitochondria  ATP generation by aerobic
respiration
 Slow hydrolysis of ATP by ATPase in myosin heads
 slower contraction cycle (twitch: 100 – 200 msec)
 Resistant to fatigue  prolonged aerobic
endurance-type activities

(Photo credit: PolarTREC)

Types of skeletal muscle fibres 3
Fast oxidative-glycolytic (FOG) fibres
 Also known as Type IIa fibres
 Intermediate in diameter
 Myoglobin + capillaries  dark red appearance
 ATP generation by aerobic respiration  fatigue
resistance
 High glycogen (糖原) level  ATP generation by
anaerobic glycolysis (無氧糖酵解)
 5 times faster hydrolysis of ATP by ATPase in
myosin heads than SO fibres  faster contraction
cycle (twitch: 100 msec)
 Involved in walking, sprinting, etc
Types of skeletal muscle fibres 4
Fast glycolytic (FG) fibres
 Also known as type IIx fibres
 Largest in diameter with the most myofibrils  most
powerful contraction
 Low myoglobin content + fewer capillaries  white
in colour
 Large amount of glycogen  ATP generation mainly
by glycolysis
 Rapid hydrolysis of ATP by ATPase in myosin heads
than SO fibres  quick contraction cycle
 Adapted for intense anaerobic movement for short
duration, eg. weight lifting
(Photo credit: PolarTREC)
Textbooks

Pages 134-169;
192-205; 232-233
 Contents in brief 3
13) Phosphocreatine (磷酸肌酸): the energy
reservoir
14) Energy release from macronutrients
15) Energy release from carbohydrate
16) Energy release from fat
17) Energy release from protein
 Contents in brief 4
18) Immediate energy the ATP-PCR system
19) Short-term energy: the lactic acid (乳酸)
system
20) Long-term energy: the aerobic system
21) Energy spectrum (能譜) of exercise
22) Metabolic size concept
23) Factors that affect energy expenditure
24) Classification of physical activities by
energy expenditure
25) Glycogen depletion
Fuel sources for physical activities

Time required to provide energy needed

 Six macronutrient fuel sources
 Phosphorylation of ADP by phosphocreatine
(PCr 磷酸肌酸)
 Anaerobic break down of glucose/glycogen
 Triglyceride/glycogen stored in muscle cells
 Blood glucose
 Free fatty acids
 Intramuscular- and liver-derived carbon
skeletons of amino acids
Phosphocreatine: the energy reservoir
Directly support continued ATP regeneration
 Anaerobic splitting of phosphate from
phosphocreatine (PCr)
 ATP  ADP + Pi (catalyzed by ATPase)
 PCr + ADP  ATP (catalyzed by enzyme)
 Last <10 sec

 [ADP]  PCr + ADP  ATP

Faster ATP regeneration by anaerobic energy

transfer from glycogen
Adenylate kinase (腺苷酸激酶)
reaction
2 ADP molecules give 1 ATP
 2ADP  ATP + AMP: T~3; M~1
 Catalyzed by enzyme

PCr enzymatic reactions

 Molecular byproducts ADP, AMP, Pi
  catabolism of glycogen/glucose
  respiration pathway in mitochondria
Energy release from macronutrients
Macronutrients
 Carbohydrates: glucose, etc
 Lipids: triglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids, etc
 Proteins: amino acids, etc

Regenerate ATP from ADP

 Break down of macronutrients molecules to smaller
units for metabolism
 Metabolism of glucose, lipids, amino acids to acetyl
CoA
 Acetyl CoA metabolized to CO2 and H2O in
mitochondria
(Photo creit: largerfamilylife.com)
 Energy release from carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
 Only macronutrient  anaerobic ATP generation
 Supply 1/3 of energy in light to moderate aerobic
exercise
 Preferred energy source over other macronutrients
 Absolute fuel for the central nervous system

Efficiency
 1 mole of glucose  686 kcal of energy
 1 mole of glucose  32 moles of ATP =
233 kcal
 66% of energy dissipated as heat
(Photo credit: wikipedia)
Energy release from carbohydrates 2
Slow aerobic glycolysis
 Glucose  pyruvate  citric acid cycle  electron
transport chain

Rapid anaerobic glycolysis

 Glucose  lactate
 Occur in strenuous exercise: O2 use > supply
 Occur in fast muscle fibres
 During intense exercise: lactate  substrate for
glycogen synthesis
 When O2 supply > use  Lactate used for ATP
production
 Glycogen depletion
Glycogen consumption
 Type of muscle fibre
 exercise intensity
 exercise duration
Fast glycolytic fibres deplete glycogen in rapid
intense exercise
Slow oxidative fibres
deplete glycogen in
prolonged light aerobic
exercise
 Glycogen depletion 2
Glycogen consumption
 Type of muslce fibre
 Exercise intensity
 Exercise duration

Prolonged light intensity

 Sufficient time for lipid metabolism
 Lipids as preferred energy source
Prolonged heavy intensity
 Rapid energy release
 Glycogen as preferred energy source
(Photo credit: NutriKnow)
 Energy release from lipids
Stored fat: source of energy back-up
 Provide almost unlimited energy
 Eg. lipid reserve in fat cells  energy for up to 40
marathons
 Eg. lipid reserve in muscles  energy for up to a
marathon
 Eg. carbohydrate reserve  not enough energy for a
marathon

 The amount of energy

 The capacity to use the energy

(Photo credit: LipidProfiles)

 Energy release from lipids 2
Sites of lipid reserve
 Triglycerides in muscle fibres
 Circulating triglycerides in lipoproteins
 Circulating free fatty acids

Triglycerides  glycerol + fatty acids

 Enter metabolic pathways

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

 Energy release from lipids 3
Fatty acid catabolism
 Metabolized to acetyl CoA
 Enter citric acid cycle

ATP released
 18-C fatty acid  147 ATPs
 Glycerol  19 ATPs
 Triglyceride  460 ATPs

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

 Energy release from lipids 4
Lipids are burnt when
 High-intensity + long duration exercise
 Glycogen depleted

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

 Energy release from protein
Protein: can be (normally rare) energy substrate
in endurance activities and intense training

Branched-chain amino acids

 Undergo deamination in liver
 Undergo transamination in muscle
 Enter citric acid cycle

(Photo credit: Baynes & Dominiczak, 2009)

Regulations of energy metabolism
Energy transfer coupled with ATP generation
 Available ADP determines ATP

ADP + Pi  ATP
 energy level   [ADP]   ATP generation
 energy level   [ADP]   ATP generation

Metabolic pathway regulation

 Activity of rate limiting enzymes
Energy for exercise
 Energy spectrum of exercise
Duration of maximal exercise
Seconds Minutes
10 30 60 2 4 10 30 60 120
Anaerobic (%) 90 80 70 50 35 15 5 2 1
Aerobic (%) 10 20 30 50 65 85 95 98 99

exercise duration   aerobic exercise

 Energy spectrum of exercise 2
Estimation of % contribution of different fuels to ATP generation
% contribution to ATP generation
Glycogen Blood glucose triglyceride
Event PCr Anaerobic Aerobic Liver glycogen Fatty acids
100 m 50 50 -- -- --
200 m 25 65 10 -- --
400 m 12.5 62.5 25 -- --
800 m 6 50 44 -- --
1,500 m  25 75 -- --
5,000 m  12.5 87.5 -- --
10 km  3 87 -- --
42.195 km -- -- 75 5 20
80 km -- -- 35 5 60
24-hr race -- -- 10 2 88
Football match 10 70 20 -- --
 Immediate energy: the ATP-PCR system
High energy phosphate ATP + PCr
 Supply energy for high-intensity exercise in short
duration
 1 kg of muscle: 3 to 8 mmol ATP + 12 to 40 mmol
PCr
 Fully depleted in 20 to 30 sec of maximal exercise
 Energy transfer 4 to 8 times higher than aerobic
metabolism

(Photo credit: CrossFit Ignite Sydney)

 Short-term energy: the lactic
acid system
ATP regeneration in high intensity exercise
 Energy derived from glycogen without O2
 Anaerobic glycolysis  lactate (乳酸) formation
 Blood [lactate] in 1 to 3 min of maximal exercise
 Short-term energy: the lactic
acid system 2
Lactate accumulation
 Athletes
 Light to moderate exercise: aerobic metabolic
reactions meet energy demand
 intense exercise; anaerobic glycolysis 
lactate accumulation
 Untrained
 50% of maximal exercise: lactate accumulation
 Lower capacity to clear up lactate, eg.

(Photo credit: muscleprodigy.com; drdavidgeier.com)

 Long term energy: the aerobic system
Aerobic metabolism provides nearly all energy
in intense exercise over several minutes

Criteria
 High capacity of circulation to deliver O2
 High capacity of muscle to use available O2

O2 deficit: O2 demand > O2 supply

 Energy supply: aerobic system  anaerobic system

(Photo credit: adlers.com.au)

Factors of energy expenditure
 Factors that affect energy
expenditure

Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT飲食生熱效應)

 Thermic effect of food (TEF食物熱效應)
 Obligatory thermogenesis (強制性產熱): energy
required to digest, absorb, assimilate (同化) food,
etc
 Facultative thermogenesis (兼性產熱): nervous
system activation + influence on metabolic rate

(Photo credit: Meditrust Health Solutions)

 Factors that affect energy
expenditure 2

DIT (飲食生熱效應)
 Consume 10 to 30% of food energy
 Thermic (產熱) effect of
carbohydrates/proteins>lipids
 Thermic effect of protein ~25%: ingestion
process + liver metabolism
 Thermic effect lower in athletes
 But exercise after meal DIT
 Obesity DIT of exercise after meal
(Photo credit: fitness.makeupandbeauty.com)
Energy expenditure and
activity intensity
 Classification of physical
activities by energy expenditure
Factors of energy expenditure
 Activity intensity
 Activity duration

Physical activity ratio (PAR)

 Light work: 3 times of resting metabolism
 Heavy work: 6 to 9 times
 Maximal work: >9 times

(Photo credit: journeymart)

Classification of physical activities
by energy expenditure 2
MET: multiples of resting metabolic rate
 3 METs = 3 times of resting metabolic energy

METs
Level Men Women
Rest 1 1
Light 1.6-3.9 1.2-2.7
Moderate 4.0-5.9 2.8-4.3
Heavy 6.0-7.9 4.4-5.9
Very heavy 8.0-9.9 6.0-7.5
Unduly heavy 10 7.6
End