Public Health engineering

COURSE:---CE5G
Th—100 marks
Pr—25 marks
TW—25 marks

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 Course Outcome s:---

PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING ( 17503) (CE5G)

C305.1 Understand the terms involved in public water supply and domestic sewage.

C305.2 Know different types of sources of water for public water supply

C305.3 Understand the methods for estimating of population .

C305.4 Suggest the treatment required by knowing the quality of water.

C305.5 Ability to know different sewerage systems with their merits

C305.6 Ability to do the analysis of the quality of sewage and to suggest suitable
treatment of sewage.
 Teaching and Examination Scheme:

Teaching Examination
Scheme Scheme
TH TU PR PAPER TH PR OR TW TOTAL
HRS
03 -- 02 03 100 25# -- 25@ 150
General Objectives:
The student will able to
1. Understand the terms involved in public water supply and
domestic sewage.
2. Know different types of sources of water for public water
supply.
3. Understand the methods for estimating.
4. Suggest the treatment required by knowing the quality of
water.
5. Understand the hydraulic design of Units in treatment plant.
6. Understand different sewerage systems with their merits.
7. Analyze the quality of sewage and suggest suitable treatment
of sewage.
Topic 1] Public Water Supply

Specific objectives :
Draw layout of water supply scheme
Calculate forecasted population
Estimate quantity of water demand
Understand working of water treatment units
Know hydraulic design of water treatment units
Describe functions and locations of different
valves on pipes.
Draw layouts of water distribution systems
Draw hydraulic flow diagram of water treatment
plant
1.1 Introduction and Quantity of water………………………10

Importance of public Health Engineering, Need to protect water supplies,

flow diagram of water supply scheme, function of units, Importance of
water supply project, Layout of water supply project.
Demands of water, Factors affecting rate of demand, Variations of water
demands, Forecasting of population, Methods of forecasting of
population,(Simple problems on forecasting of population), Design period,
Estimating of quantity of water supply required for city or town, Types of
water supply schemes.
Importance of Public Health Engineering

1) Environmental engineers designs municipal water supply system and provide

safe drinking water or secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use.

2) To achieve these, they examine the watersheds with a hydrological or

geological point of view as well as engineering treatment systems for water
purification.

3) Various water treatment methods are used, including membrane technology,

desalinization, biological water treatment, etc. Water distribution systems are
also designed and built.

4) Environmental engineers also develop collection and treatment systems to

carry domestic or industrial waste water discharges away and remove some of
the pollutants before discharging it into the environment.
 Functions of Public health Engg
1) To review and approve construction plans
suitable for health legislations .
2) To provide engg expertise , advice and
guidelines to public health officers and other
govt agencies
3) To provide professional Phe support in
identifying ,resolving , and preventing
community environmental health problems
4) To analyse and provide technical input on
public health problems
 Need to protected water supplies
1)Water used for domestic purpose should be free from
germs and chemicals
2) Clear water does not mean the water is safe Major
water pollutants are sewage pollution ,animal faces, and
fertilizers
3) Diseases causing bacteria and viruses enter in water at
source i. e. through animal or human faces some of the
common bacteria's are E--coli Salmonella
4) Water borne Diseases cause serious illness ( Diarrhea ,
vomiting ) which are dangerous for infants , old people
5) Water may be polluted by contaminants like nitrate ,
arsenic and boron ,iron etc
6) Hence we need protective Public water Supply
Need to protected water supplies

The contamination of water sources that resulted in loss of human life and illness
showed the importance of protecting the sources water.
1) Protecting Source Water is the most cost-effective and reliable way to protect
our drinking water for generations to come. It is much more expensive to treat
contaminated groundwater than to protect it from getting contaminated in the
first place
2) Protecting our Source Water is important because:
3) Not all forms of contamination can be easily removed or treated (i.e. many
chemical compounds).
4) Many people in Ontario, especially in rural areas, are not connected to
municipal water. These people supply their own drinking water from a private well
or surface water intake. For these people, protecting source water from
contamination may be the only barrier they have against contaminated drinking
water.
5) It is often far more expensive to treat contaminated source water than it is to
protect it from contamination.
Flow diagram of water supply scheme
 Functions of units

1) Water Source :-To provide water to water supply scheme

2) Intake Structures:-To permit the withdrawal of water from
the source.
3) Rising mains:-To carry water from intake structure to sump
well.
4) Pump house :-To lift water from sump well to deliver to WTP
5) Sump well:-To store water.
6) WTP :-To purify impure water
7) GSR/ESR :-To store the pure water at ground level in case of
GSR and to crate pressure head over water supply pipe line in
case of ESR
8) Distribution system:-To distribute water to consumer / public.
 Function of Units
1) Intake structure :-- To admit raw water from a surface water is drawn
into plant through intake structure
2) Bar Screen :-- To remove floating matter from water .
3) Low lift pump well :-- These pumps lift the water to flow through the
treatment process by gravity
4) Primary disinfection :--To disinfect the water
5) Coagulation :-- floc formation .coagulants attract the small particles in
water to clamp together as a floc
6) Flocculation :-- by slower mixing turbulence causes the flocculated
water to form larger floc particles that become cohesive and increse in
mass .This visible floc is kept in suspension until large enough to settle
under the influence of gravity
7) Sedimentation :-- Flocculated water is applied to large volume tanks
where the flow speed slows down and the dense floc settles in
sedimentation tank.
8) Filtration :-- remaining impurities are removed in filters .
9) Sump well :-- Filtered water is stored in sump well .
10) Secondary disinfection :-- supplementary chlorine is added to maintain
disinfection concentration .While the water is pumped through the
distribution system .The purpose is to ensure min residual chlorine at
the end point
11) High lift pump well :-- Treated drinking water is pumped through large pressure
pumps to other pumping stations reservoirs or points of supply within the local
distribution sysytem
12) ESR :--- It enables the stable pressure in distribution system
13) Distribution system :-- It consists of large no of pipe network to deliver drinking
water Public water Supply
Layout of water supply project
Layout of water supply project

Raw water
 Demand of water
It is the water to be supplied per head per day

it is expressed as lit /person/day or /capita /day

formula :--

Rate of demand = ____Q_____

P X 365

Where Q :-- Quantity of water required per year in lit

P :-- Estimated population

Various water demands
1) Domestic demand :-- Water needed for drinking ,cooking , washing , bathing ,
lawn sprinkling ,gardening ,sanitary purpose in residential buildings
Demand :-- 50 to 350 lit/capita /day
Depends upon habits ,living standards of people
As per IS residential domestic demand is 135 lit/capita /day
@55 to 60 % of the total demand
Breakup of 135 lit /capita /day
SR No Purpose Water consumption

1. Drinking 5 lit/capita /day

2. Cooking 5 lit/capita /day
3. Bathing 55 lit/capita /day
4. Washing clothes 20 lit/capita /day
5. Washing utensils 10lit/capita /day

6. House Washing 10 lit/capita /day

7. Toilet Flushing 30 lit/capita /day

Total 135lit/capita /day
 2) Public Demand
water need for washing streets ,swimming pools ,public
parks ,fountains and ornamental displays in city ,flushing of
public toilets and sewers .
It may range from 20 to 70 lit /capita /day
@ 5 to 10 % of total demand
SR NO PURPOSE Water consumption
01 Public Parks 2.5 lit/sq m /day
02 Road Washing 1 to 1.5 lit/sq m /day
03 Sewer flushing 4..5 lit/sq m /day

04 Road side Trees 28 to 150 lit/km /day

3) Industrial , commercial and institutional demand

Water reqd for offices , shopping centers , hotels ,cinema houses
,schools , college ,hostels ,hospitals ,raiways and bus stations and
various industries is known as ----
 Industrial , commercial and institutional demand

Sr NO Type of Unit of Production Water reqd in

industry kilolit /unit
01 Sugar One bag of 100kg 0.1--.02
02 Textile 100 kg 8 to 14
03 Paper Tonne 200—400
04 Fertilisers Tonne 80---200
05 Automobile Per vehicle 40
06 Leather 100 Kg 4
07 Glass Tonne 68

08 Wool Tonne 150--200

Demand of water for bldgs other than residential bldgs

SR NO Classification of bldg Water req in lit /day

01 Hospital
1) No of beds < 100 340/bed
2) No of beds > 100 455/bed
02 Nurses and Doctors quarters 135 per head
03 Hotels 180 per bed
04 Restaurants 70 per seat
05 Schools 45 per head
06 Hostels 135 per head
07 Offices 45 per head
 4) Fire Demand
1) Kuichling formula
Q = 3182 √ P

2) Freemans formula Q = 1136.50 ( P/5+10)

Where Q= Fire demand in lit / min
P =population in thousands

3) Govt of India formula

Q = 100 √ P
Where Q= Fire demand in Kilolit / day
P =population in thousands

4) Bustons Formula
Q = 5663 √ P lit/min

5) National board of fire under writers formula :--

Q = 4637 √ P ( 1-0.01 √ P ) lit/min
 5) loss and waste :---
Loss due to :--
1 ) Careless use of water
2) Leakage in mains
3) Unauthorized water connection
4) Throwing of stored water

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Factors affecting Water demand:--

1) Cost of water
2) Habits of people
3) Climatic conditions
4) Size of the city
5) Quality of water
6) Metering system
7) Supply and distribution pressure
8) Industries and commerce
9) System of supply
10) System of sanitation
Factors affecting rate of demand-
1. Climatic condition - The per capita consumption of water is more in hot climate
than in the cold climate.
2. Living standards of people – Per capita consumption is more for rich people then
the poor and middle class people.
3. Size of the community – Water demand of town is more with its size.
4. Industrial and commercial activities- Per capita water consumption increases with
industrial and commercial activities in town.
5. Pressure in the distribution system- The water demand increases with increase in
the pressure of water in distribution lines. And there will be more loss due to leakage
& thefts.
6. System of sanitation- The per capita water demand of town having water carriage
will be more than town where it is not used.
7. Cost of water- If the cost of water is more less quantity of water will be used.
8. System of supply- In continuous system of supply, consumption is more than
intermittent system.
9. Quality of water- If the quality of water is good water consumption will be more.
Variations in demand of water
1) Seasonal variation
2) Monthly variation
3) Daily variation
4) Hourly variation

1)Seasonal variation :-- demand varies from season to season

depend on season summer /rainy

2) Monthly variation :-- demand varies from month to month

May/ June/july holidays

3) Daily variation :-- day to day variation

Demand depends on the factors
1) habits of the consumer
2) Climatic conditions
3) Type of area : Industrial or commercial

4) Hourly variation :-- hour to hour variation max demand = 7 am to 9 am

min between 11 am to 3 pm again max 7 pm and 9 am
 Population forecasting
To determine the future population based on the present and previous years
population

Necessity :-- 1) To find the population at the end of the design period
2 ) To design the various components of the water supply scheme
3) To design the components of the water supply scheme
for the future need
4) To supply the water to the present as well as future population

Methods of population forecasting :--

1) Arithmetical increase method
2) Geometrical increase method
3) Incremental increase method
4) Decrease rate of growth demand
5) Simple graphical method
6) Graphical comparison method
7) Zoning method
8) The logistic curve method
1) Arithmetic increase method
assumption :-- The average rate of increase in population from decade
to decade is constant
From previous census data , the increase in population between consecutive
decades is found and from this average increase per decade is worked
out

Pn = P + nd
Where P = population after n decade
P = present population
d = avg increases per decade
n = no. of decades

Suitability suitable for the city or town when :-----

1) The design period is small
2) The town is old and large
3) Also reached its saturation population due to max development
2)Geometrical increase method :--
Assumption
The average percentage increase in population from decade to decade is
constant

Pn = P( 1+r/100) n
P =present population
r = avg percentage increase per decade
Pn = population after nth decade

Suitability :-- 1) for towns having large scope for expansion

2) fairly constant rate of growth is expected

3) Incremental increase method :--

This method includes advantages of both arithmetic as well as geometrical
method s
First the avg increase in population is calculated by arithmetic method and then
increase and decrease or increase in population change for each decade is
found out and from these avg incremental increase is worked .
Future population can be calculated by
Pn = P + nd + n(n+1) /2*t
P = present population
D= avg increase per decade
t = avg incremental increse
n= Number of decades

Suitability :-- suitable for the towns whose population is varying at a

progressive rate and not at constant rate
4)Decreasing rate method :--
Assumtion :-- the town has some limiting saturation population
The method involves percentage increse in population for every
decade and and then working out the decrese in percentage increse

The average of decrease in percentge increse is deducted from the

last percentage increse for each succssive future decade ;
This method is suitable for the town whose rate of increase in
population Is decresing .
4) Incremental increase method – In this method decade growth rate is
progressively increasing or decreasing. The population for future decade
is worked out by adding the mean arithmetic increase to the last known
population as in arithmetic increase method and to this is added the
average of the incremental increase, once for the first decade, twice for
the second decade and so on.

Pn = Po+ n.x+ n.(n+1).y

2
x= Average increase in population
y= Average of incremental increase in population
Simple Graphical method- In this method the population of last few decades are
correctly plotted to a suitable scale on the graph w.r.t. decade. The curve thus
obtained is smoothly extended to forecast the future population
Comparative graph method- The future population can be predicted by
plotting the population of other cities. The curve of past population of the
city under consideration is plotted on the same graph. Cities to be
compared should be as similar as possible to city being studied. Factors
to be considered i) geographical proximity, ii) likeness of economic base,
iii) access to similar transportation systems. Population of the city is
expected to grow in a similar manner to cities used for comparison
The Master Plan method- For the proper development of the cities, their
master plans are prepared. The city is divided in various zones such as
residential, commercial, industrial, educational, parks & gardens etc. The
future expansion of the city is strictly regulated by various bye-laws of
corporation and other local bodies according to master plan. The master
plans are prepared for 25-30 years.
Logistic Curve method- If the population of town is plotted w.r.t.
time the curve so obtained under normal conditions shall be,
Design period:-The number of years for which a provision is made in designing
the capacities of the various components of the water supply scheme is known as
design period

Factors affecting design period:-

i) Useful life of component structure and the chances of their becoming old and
absolute. Design period should not exceed those respective values.

ii) Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions. If under taking at
future dates.

iii) Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for

additional provision.

iv) The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money invested.

v) Anticipated Rate of population growth including possible shift’s in communities,

industries and commercial establishment
--------------------- End of chapter 1
1.2 Sources and Quality of Water……………………………10

Surface and Subsurface sources of water, Intake Structures

Definition and types, Factors governing the location of an intake
structure, Types of intakes, Water conservation, Ground water recharging
Necessity Importance and advantages

Need for analysis of water, Characteristics of water- Physical, Chemical

and Biological, Testing of water for Total solids, hardness, chlorides,
dissolved Oxygen, pH, Fluoride, Nitrogen and its compounds,
Bacteriological tests, E coli, B coli index, MPN, Sampling of water,
Water quality standards as per I.S.
Sources of water
1) Surface sources
2) Subsurface sources

Surface sources
When the surface runoff is available for water supply scheme s then
such sources then such sources are known as Surface sources

Types :-- 1) streams

2) Lake
3) River
4) reservoir
5) Ponds
6) Stored rain water
2)Sub Surface sources

The water that has percolated into the ground is brought on the surface then
such a type of source is known as underground sources

Types :-- a) Infiltration galleries

b) Springs 1) Artesian 2) Gravity 3) surface
c) Wells 1) Shallow well 2) deep well 3) Tube well 4) artesian well

Infiltration galleries
It is a horizontal tunnel which is costructed through water bearing strata .It is
called as horizontal well.
Construction :-- open jointed perforated stoneware or concrete pipes embedded
in sandy subsurface
Aggregate act as filtering layer .
GW percolates through aggregates into the pipe and is conveyed to the sump well
Pipe line is laid belowest the lowest ground water level in aquifer
Manholes are provided for inspection at 100 m intervals if pipe line is very long .
 Springs
When ground water appears at the surface for any reason , springs are formed
.They serve as a source of supply for small towns ,especially near hills or base of
the hills
1) Artesian
2) Gravity spring
3) Surface spring

1) Artesian
When GW comes to the surface under pressure then such type of spring is
known as Artesian spring
It is formed due to presence or fissure or crack in impervious layer
The fissure or crack should be continued up to the ground surface .

2) Gravity Spring :-- when the water comes to surface ,due to overflowing of the
water table ,then such a spring is called a s gravity spring .
3) Surface spring :-- when subsoil water is exposed to the ground surface by the
obstruction of an impervious layer then spring developed is known as surface
spring
4) Wells :-- An artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping
water is known as well.
1) Shallow well ----dia 2to 6 m
Depth --- 6 ---8 m
1) Artesian well
2) Deep well :--when the wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below
an impervious layer as shown in the fig is known as deep well .

3) Tube well :-- When the well is a deep well having a diameter about 50 mm to
200 mm and it obtains water from a no of aquifers

4) Artesian well s:-- The Artesian condition develops when an aquifer is enclosed
between two impervious layers
Under such condition the hydraulic gradient line is above the GL at the site of
Artesian well and hence when a hole is made in the ground the water comes out
with force under pressure .
1) Gravity spring
Intake structure

The structure which is constructed across the surface of water so as to permit

the withdrawal of water from the sources is known as intake structure

Function :-- To collect water from surface source and discharge it into the plant

Types of intakes

1)River intake

2)Reservoir intake

3)Lake intake

4)Canal intake
River Intake Structures:
1) It is a type of intake which may either located sufficiently inside
the river so that demands of water are met with in all the seasons of
the year, or they may be located near the river bank where a
sufficient depth of water is available.
2) Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed and water is led
to the intake tower.
3) If the water level in the river is low, a weir may be constructed
across it to raise the water level and divert it to the intake tower.
Reservoir Intake Structures:
1) When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year, a
dam is constructed across it to store water in the reservoir so formed.
2) These are similar to river intake, except that these are located near
the upstream face of the dam where maximum depth of water is
available.
3) Design of intake may vary based on the type of dam.
Lake Intake Structures:
1) Generally submerged intakes are preferred for lake intakes.
2) These are constructed as cribs or bell mouths. The cribs are made of heavy
timber frame work which is partly or wholly filled with rip-rap to protect the
intake conduit against damage by waves etc.
3) The top of the crib is covered with cast iron or mesh grating.
Canal Intake Structures:
1) In some cases, source of water supply to a small town
may be an irrigation canal passing nearer or through the
town. Then it will be constructed.
2) Generally it consists of masonry or concrete intake
chamber of rectangular shape, admitting water through
a coarse screen.
3) A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of
the outlet pipe.
4) The intake chamber may be constructed inside the
canal bank if it does not offer any appreciable resistance
to normal flow in the canal.
5) It’s preferred to provide lining to the canal near the
intake chamber.
Site selection for Intake structures:
1. The site should be so selected that it may admit water
even under worst condition of flow in the river. Generally,
it is preferred that intake should be sufficiently below the
shore line.
2. Site should be very close to treatment plant as
possible.
3. It should be so located that it is free from the pollution.
It is better to provide intake at upper stream of city so
that water is not contaminated.
4. It should not interfere with river traffic, if any.
5. It should be located where good foundation conditions
are available.
6. It should be so located that it admits relatively pure
water free from mud, sand and pollutants. Means it should
be protected from rapid
Factors governing the location of an intake structure
The quality of water available at the site should be good.
2. The site of intake should be easily accessible.
3. Intake should not get flooded during floods.
4. Intake works should not be located on curves as far as possible.
5. Power supply should be available and reliable near the site.
6. The intake should not be located near the navigation channel.
7. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of
water, if required in future.
8. It must be located at a place from where it can draw water even
during the driest period of the year.
9. The intake should be as near the pumping station as possible.
10. Places of rapid current that will endanger the safety of the
intake structure should be avoided.
Ground water Recharging

Necessity of Ground water Recharging

To maximize storage(long-term & seasonal)

Water quality improvement through dilution

Preventing saline-water intrusion & land subsidence

Reducing reduction volumes from river flow

Controlling effects of climate change

Advantages of recharging :---
Artificial recharge has several potential advantages, namely:

The use of aquifers for storage and distribution of water and removal of
contaminants by natural cleansing processes that occur as polluted rain and
surface-water infiltrate the soil and percolate down through the various
geological formations.

The technology is appropriate and generally well understood by both the

technologists and the general population.

Very few special tools are needed to dig wells.

In rock formations with high structural integrity, few additional materials may
be required (concrete, soft stone or coral rock blocks, metal rods etc.) to
construct the wells.

Groundwater recharge stores water during the wet season for use in the dry
season, when demand is the highest.
Necessity and Importance of Ground water recharging-

1. Increase ground water storage

2. Prevent wastage of water by arresting runoff

3. Safeguard and sustain existing water table.

4. Improve water quality

5. Prevent sea water intrusion and salination of ground water.

6. Prevent soil erosion

7. Mitigates flood

8. To meet the demand for future generation

Significance of ground water recharge.

1) To increase ground water table for later use.

2) Area where ground water is a important component of the

water supply and rain fall is less.

3) To avoid /minimise evaporation losses of water

4) To recharge underground water.

Method of recharge :-
i) Recharge through a recharge pit _

This method is suitable in areas having shallow ground water table and for
smaller buildings with roof area of 100-500sqm .A pit of 1-2 m deep is
excavated at a suitable location in the plot and the run off water from the
catchment area is diverted into this recharge pit. The pit is filled with
crushed gravel and coarses sand to filter out the rain water .
ii) Recharge through a recharge well :-
This method is suitable in area having low ground water table .In this
method a bore hole is dug or drilled up to or near the ground water level or
up to the porous strata or rock fracture for effective recharge .The diameter
of the bore hole may vary from 0.2 to 0.8m depending upon the porosity of
the receiving strata. Slotted pipe are then installed into this bore hole to
enable permeability in the ground water table .
iii)Recharge through a recharge well with pressure
filter:-
This Method is suitable for areas with low ground water tables .In this
method rain water is first collected into an underground tank ,from where
it is lifted up by a pump and pressured down into the recharge well. The
shaft or well is drilled up to the ground water level or just above the
normal tube well with gravel level and may be made by lowering GI tube
well type pipe into a bore hole of 0.15 to 0.3 dia .top be lowered in the
bore must be slotted in the lower part of the well to enable permeability in
the ground water table .The slots in the upper length may also be located
to coincide with favourable permeable strata
Significance rain water harvesting

i) To increase ground water table for later use

ii) To avoid evaporation losses of stored water

iii) To recharge well and bore well

Methods :- (i) Storage of surface rain water :-In this method water is collected
from roof of buildings and it is collected through gutters or pipes then filtered
through mechanical filter ,lastly stored in tank made from RCC or bricks.

(ii) Recharging the underground aquifer :-

In this method water is stored for its later use .It can be achieved through,
canals, water traps, cut water, surface runoff drainage wells, trough dug wells
etc. There are two types of structures for artificial recharge :- Shallow
structures ,Deeper structures
Need for analysis of water, Characteristics of water- Physical, Chemical
and Biological, Testing of water for Total solids, hardness, chlorides,
dissolved Oxygen, pH, Fluoride, Nitrogen and its compounds,
Bacteriological tests, E coli, B coli index, MPN, Sampling of water,
Water quality standards as per I.S.
Need for analysis of water

The ground water is free from organic impurities and requires no treatment. But it
should be usually chlorinated before using. Water obtained from shallow wells
should be properly treated.
The examination of water is done in the water works laboratory, it is necessary to
examine the quality of water.

The main advantages are:

i) To remove pathogenic bacteria.

ii) To outline the purification process.

iii) To make the water safe for domestic and industrial use.

iv) To remove dissolved impurities mineral salts.

Various tests for potable water:

i) Physical test: colour, Taste and odour, Temperature, Turbidity.

ii) Chemical test: Total solids, Hardness, Chlorides, Dissolved

oxygen, PH

value, Fluorides, Alkalinity.

iii) Biological test: E-coli, MPN.

To determine the physical parameters such as turbidity,
pH, and conductance of a water sample.

Turbidity: Turbidity is the amount of particulate matter

that is suspended in water. Turbidity measures the
scattering effect that suspended solids have on light: the
higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the
turbidity.
Various tests for potable water:

i) Physical test: colour, Taste and odour, Temperature, Turbidity.

ii) Chemical test: Total solids, Hardness, Chlorides, Dissolved oxygen, PH

value, Fluorides, Alkalinity.

iii) Biological test: E-coli, MPN.

Principle:

This method is based on a comparison of the intensity of light scattered by the

sample under defined conditions with the intensity of light scattered by a
standard reference suspension under the same conditions. The higher the
intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity. Commonly used primary
standard reference suspension is Formazin polymer. The turbidity of a specified
concentration of formazin suspension is defined as 400 NTU.
Interference:
The presence of floating debris and coarse sediments will give high readings.
Air bubbles will cause high results.
Coloured samples will cause low results.

Apparatus:

Laboratory or process nephelometer consisting of a light source for illuminating

the sample and one or more photoelectric detectors with a readout device to
indicate intensity of light scattered at 90º to the path of incident light.
Sample cells: Use sample cells or tubes of clear, colourless glass or plastic. Keep
cells scrupulously clean, both inside and out, and discard if scratched or etched.
Testing of water for Total solids

The total dissolved solids concentration is the sum of the cations (positively

charged) and anions (negatively charged) ions in the water.

(TDS) Total Dissolved Solids are the total weight of all solids that are dissolved in a

given volume of water, expressed in units of mg per unit volume of water .

Bacteriological tests,

1) E coli,
2) B coli index,
3) MPN
Explain E-coli test with Significance.
E-coli is most commonly found coliform, and is further sub divided into
biotype and serotype. E coli are a parasite living only in the human or
animal intestines. Voided in faeces it remains visible in environment only
for some day. E coli in drinking water, therefore it is taken as a evidence of
recent pollution.
Significance:-
1) The presence of E-coli in ground water source indicates that ground
water is contaminated by faecal material and unsafe for drinking without
further treatment.
2) The presence of E-coli in water leaving a treatment plant signifies that
treatment has been in adequate.
3) The presence of E-coli in any point in the treated water indicates that
there is a potential health risk for consuming the water.
 Permissible limit for potable water (As per IS 10500:1991) for total solids,
pH, hardness, chlorides

Sr.No. Description Desirable Permissible Limit

Limit
1) Total Solids 500mg/l 2000mg/l

2) pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

3) Hardness 300mg/l 600mg/l

4) Chlorides 250mg/l 1000mg/l

Norms of Maharashtra Pollution Control board:-
For drinking water
1) Colour -5 units of cobalt scale
2) Turbidty-2.5 PPM
3) Total Solids -500PPM
4) Chorides-200 PPM
5) Free ammonia-0.15PPM
6) PH -7 to 8.5
7) Flouride-1 PPM
8) Arcenic-0.05 PPM
9) E-coli index -10
10) Cynide-0.05PPM
Residual chlorine: After a certain point of dosage any further addition of
chlorine will appear as free residual chlorine. Simply it is extra chlorine
remains in water after killing the bacteria.

Importance: When water completely purify after the treatment and then it
is distributed through pipelines to different area of the town, then there is
possibility of the pipes have the germs or bacteria stick to it then free
residual chlorine in water used for killing bacteria in that pipe and quality
of water is maintain for the consumer.
bacteriological tests need to be conducted on water

1)E-coli index, in this three tests are there

i)presumptive test
ii)confirmatory test
iii)completed test
2) MPN-Most probable number test.
3) Total Count or Agar Plate Count Test
Precautions required to be taken during water sampling.
Avoid faucets (taps) that are seldom used (i.e. the taps which are rarely used )
Avoid sampling from a dead-end.
Avoid a faucet (taps) that leaks around the stem
Avoid any faucet (taps) that is dusty, dirty or corroded
Avoid swing faucets(taps)
Avoid faucets (taps) that cannot deliver a smooth stream of water
Avoid sampling from a flexible hose, garden hose
Avoid sampling from faucets(taps) with aerators or screen
Avoid sampling from faucets(taps) that have a point-of-use carbon filter attached
Avoid sampling from: i. a dripping faucet(taps)
ii. a frost free yard hydrant or wall hydrant
iii. an outside hose bib with an unremovable vacuum reaker
iv. a faucet (taps) with an unremovable aerator
v. a metal fixture with external plastic or rubber inserts
Choose cold water faucets (taps) only
Choose a faucet(taps) that is NOT connected to the water softener
Choose a smooth-end faucet (taps) over a threaded-end faucet
----------End ofchapter 2
 CHAPTER NO 03
1.3 Purification of Water……………………………………..18
Screening- Types of screens, Aeration- objects and methods of aeration,
Plain sedimentation, Sedimentation with coagulation, principles of
coagulation, types of coagulants, Jar Test, process of coagulation, types
of sedimentation tanks,
Clariflocculator, Filtration-theory of filtration, classification of filters:
slow sand filter, rapid sand filter, pressure filter, domestic filter, filter
media, construction and working of slow sand filter and rapid sandfilter.
Disinfection: Objects, methods of disinfection, Chlorination- Application
of chlorine, forms of chlorination, types of chlorination practices, residual
chlorine and its importance, orthotolidine test, Miscellaneous water
Treatments (Water softening, Defluoridation techniques), Advanced
Water Treatments (Electrolysis, Reverse Osmosis), Flow diagram of water
treatment plants, Low cost water Treatments: Necessity and importance in
rural areas, Prevention of pollution of bores and bore wells.
PURPOSE OF WATER TREATMENT

It is desirable to treat water for a number of

reasons including:
a.To prevent pathogenic microorganisms
causing the disease.
b.To control unpleasant taste & appearance of
particles.
c.To remove the excessive color of water &
turbidity.
d.To extract the chemicals & dissolved minerals.
Screening- Types of screens
Screening is the first unit operation used at wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs). Screening removes objects such as rags,
paper, plastics, and metals to prevent damage and clogging of
downstream equipment, piping, and appurtenances. Some modern
wastewater treatment plants use both coarse screens and fine screen
 Types of screens used

There are two types of screening processes

1.Manually Operated
2.Automatically
1. Course screens (Bar Racks)
2. Fine screens
3. Micro screens.
Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove
dissolved gases (such as carbon dioxide) and oxidizes dissolved metals
such as iron, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic chemicals
.Aeration is often the first major process at the treatment plant.
Objectives of aeration process

1. Removes taste and odours caused due to organic

gases.
2. Increases dissolved oxygen content
3. Removes Hydrogen Sulphide and odour due to it.
4. Decreases CO2 content and raises pH.
5. Removes Iron and Manganese.
6. Due to agitation bacteria may get killed.
7. Can be used for mixing chemicals
Method of Aeration:

1. Cascades:
Itconsist of concrete steps over which water flow down in the form of thin
sheet. Weir may be provided at the edge of each step. Thin sheet of water
which comes down over steps comes in contact with the atmosphere. More
surface area of water is exposed to atmosphere and thus more oxygen is
absorbed by water.
2. Spray nozzle: In this method, water is sprinkled in air or atmosphere
through special nozzle which breaks the water into droplets thus permitting the
escape of dissolved gases. Carbon dioxide gas is thus considerably removed in
this method and more oxygen is absorbed by water.
3. By air diffusion: In this method, compressed air is bubbled through the water, so
as to thoroughly mix it with water. Perforated pipes are, installed at the bottom of
the settling tanks, and the compressed air is blown through them. The compressed
air is thus bubbled up from the bottom of the tank. During its upward movement
through the water body, it gets thoroughly mixed up with the water contained in
the tank, therefore completing the aeration process.
4. Trickling bed filter: In this method, the water is allowed to trickle down the beds
of coke, supported over the perforated bottomed trays, and arranged vertically in
series. Generally three beds are used, the depth of each being about 0.6m with clear
distance of about 0.45 m in between. The water is applied from the top through
perforated distribution pipes and allows trickling down. During this downward
motion, the water gets mixed up with air and aeration takes place. This method gives
better results than what can be obtained by cascades, but is fewer effectives than the
method of spray nozzles.
Plain sedimentation, Sedimentation with coagulation, principles of
coagulation, types of coagulants, Jar Test, process of coagulation,
types
of sedimentation tanks
Plain sedimentation

Sedimentation is a physical water treatment process using gravity to

remove suspended solids from water.[1] Solid particles entrained by the
turbulence of moving water may be removed naturally by sedimentation
in the still water of lakes and oceans. Settling basins are ponds
constructed for the purpose of removing entrained solids by
sedimentation.[2]Clarifiers are tanks built with mechanical means for
continuous removal of solids being deposited by sedimentation.[3]
Different types of sedimentation tanks.
A)Depending upon the nature of working
i)fill and draw type
ii)continuous flow type , it may be vertical and horizontal type
B) Depending on the shape
i) Square
ii) Rectangular
iii) Circular
C) Depending on direction of flow
i) Vertical type
ii)Horizontal type
i)fill and draw type
 Jar Test
Equipment used :
 6 jar vessels (beakers)
 Water sample whose temperature and pH is
known.
 Scale for weighing chemicals
 Alum
procedure
 Fill the 6 jars with 1000ml water.
 Add the coagulant(alum) in the dosage of
increasing order and stir the stirrer
with 100 rpm for one minute
 Reduce the speed to 30 to 40 rpm
 Then allow the pedals to rotate slowly for
20 minutes
 Turn off the mixer and allow to settle for 30
minutes
 Observe and measure the turbidity of each
jar sample
 Good floc formation will be the final
amount of coagulant
 It is the optimum dosage
Filtration-theory of filtration, classification of filters:
slow sand filter, rapid sand filter, pressure filter,
domestic filter, filter
media, construction and working of slow sand filter and
rapid sandfilter
Filtration:--
The process of passing the water through beds of
sand or other granular materials is known as
filtration.

Objects of filtration:
1. To remove colloidal and suspended matter
remaining after sedimentation.
2. To remove bacterial load.
3. To remove colour, odour, iron and maganese.
4. To make water sparkling.
 Theory of filtration
1) Mechanical Straining •Simplest action during filtration. •Suspended
particleshaving size more than that of filter voids are arrested and removed,
when water passes through filter media. •Takes place in few centimeters of
depth of filter media.
2) Sedimentation •Finer particles are arrested by sedimentation.
•Continuous voids of filter media acts as ‘tube settler’ i.e. shallow depth
sedimentation tank. •All colloids are removed by this action.
3) Biological Action •after few days of working of filter, upper grains of sand
layer becomes coated with a reddish brown colored sticky deposit. •It
consists of organic matter and Fe, Mg, Al and silica
Further after 2-3 weeks, a film consisting of algae and protozoa etc is
Developed. Organic impurities in water are used as food by this film, thus
removing the organic matter from water.
4) Electrolytic Action •Particulate matter is removed by electrostatic action.
•Charge on filter medium neutralizes charge on floc particles, thereby
permitting the floc to be removed. •During back washing the
electrostatically removed material is removed and thus charge on filter
material is replaced.
Classification of filters:----

A) Slow sand filter.

B) Rapid sand filter

C) Pressure filter
Construction and working of slow sand filter:

1) These are watertight shallow tanks about 2.5 m to 4 m deep and

having surface area 100 m2 to 2000 m2 in plan.

2) These tanks contain 60-90cm sand bed and supported on 30-60cm

thick gravel bed. Gravel is supported on a bed of concrete, sloping
towards central longitudinal drain, connected by open jointed under
drains.

3) Water enters through a submersible inlet and uniformly

distributed on sand bed.

4) After subsequent filtering the filtering media gets clogged.

Therefore 2-3cm sand from top of bed is scrapped and replaced with
clean sand
 Rapid sand filter. ----- Construction

(i)Enclosure tank :- A watertight tank is constructed either of masonry or

concrete The sides and floor are also coated with waterproof material .The
depth of tank is about 2.5m to 3.5 m

(ii)Under drainage system :-There are various forms of under drainage

system of rapid sand filter and most of them are patented by manufacture

(iii) Base material:- It is gravel placed on the top of under drainage system.
The gravel to be used for base material should be clean and free from
dust,silt,clay and vegetable matter

(iv) Filter media of sand :-A layer of sand is placed above gravel The depth
of sand layer varies from 600 mm to 900 mm

(v) Appurtenances:-It consists of air compressors wash water troughs and

rate control.
Working of rapid sand filter

The water from sedimentation tank enters the filter unit through
inlet pipe and is uniformly distributed on the whole sand bed.

Water passes through filter media and collected by under

drainage system in filtered water well.

The outlet chamber in this filter is also equipped with filter rate
controller. As bed get clogged the loss of head increases, and the
rate controller adjusts it to a limit.

When the rate of filtration becomes very low and the filter bed
requires back washing.
pressure filter’.
b Comparison between rapid sand filter and slow sand filter:
Comparison Points Slow Sand filter Rapid Sand Filter

1. Coagulation Not required Essential

2. Compactness Requires large area for its installation. Requires small area for its installation

3. Construction Simple Complicated as separate under

drainage system is required to be
design

4. Cost of operation Low High

5. Period of cleaning 1-3 Months 2-3 days

6. Method of clearing Long and laborious method Due to back washing short and speedy
method

7. Skilled supervision Not essential Essential

8. Suitability For small towns and villages For big cities where land cost is high
and variation in water demand

Base material
1.4 Conveyance and Distribution of water

Types of Pipes used for conveyance of water :--

A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not
necessarily of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey
substances which can flow — liquids and gases (fluids),
slurries, powders and masses of small solids. It can also be
used for structural applications; hollow pipe is far stiffer per
unit weight than solid members
Materials commonly used to construct water pipes
include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cast iron, copper, steel and
in older systems concrete or fired clay.
A water pipe is any pipe or tube designed to transport drinking water to consumers. If the
water is treated before distribution or at the point of use (POU) depends on the context.
In well planned and designed water distribution networks, water is generally treated
before distribution and sometimes also chlorinated, in order to prevent recontamination
on the way to the end user. The varieties of water pipes include large diameter main
pipes, which supply entire towns, smaller branch lines that supply a street or group of
buildings, or small diameter pipes located within individual buildings. Water pipes can
range in size from giant mains of up to 3.65 m in diameter to small 12.7 mm pipes used to
feed individual outlets within a building. Materials commonly used to construct water
pipes include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cast iron, copper, steel and in older systems
concrete or fired clay. Joining individual water pipe lengths to make up extended runs is
possible with flange, nipple, compression or soldered joints (SCOTT 2011).
Types of Pipes
Types of Pipes
Pipes come in several types and sizes. They can be divided into three main
categories: metallic pipes, cement pipes and plastic pipes. Metallic pipes include
steel pipes, galvanised iron pipes and cast iron pipes. Cement pipes include concrete
cement pipes and asbestos cement pipes. Plastic pipes include plasticised polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) pipes (LEE n.y.).
Steel Pipes
Steel pipes are comparatively expensive, but they are the strongest and most
durable of all water supply pipes. They can withstand high water pressure, come in
convenient (longer) lengths than most other pipes and thus incur lower
installation/transportation costs. They can also be easily welded (LEE n.y.).
Galvanised Steel or Iron Pipes
Galvanised steel or iron is the traditional piping material in the plumbing industry
for theconveyance of water and wastewater. Although still used throughout the
world, its popularity is declining. The use of galvanised steel or iron as a conveyer
for drinking water is problematic where water flow is slow or static for periods of
time because it causes rust from internal corrosion. Galvanised steel or iron piping
may also give an unpalatable taste and smell to the water conveyed under corrosive
conditions (WHO 2006).
Cast Iron Pipes
Plasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pipes
A fitting is used in pipe systems to connect
straight pipe or tubing sections, adapt to different sizes or shapes
and for other purposes, such as regulating {or
measuring) fluid flow. "Plumbing" is generally used to describe the
conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste in domestic or
commercial environments; "piping" is often used to describe the
high-performance (high-pressure, high-flow, high-temperature or
hazardous-material) conveyance of fluids in specialized
applications. "Tubing" is sometimes used for lighter-weight piping,
especially those flexible enough to be supplied in coiled form.
Fittings (especially uncommon types) require money, time,
materials and tools to install, and are an important part
of piping and plumbingsystems.[1] Valves are technically fittings,
but are usually discussed separately.
Types of Manual Valves
Contents:
Manual Valves by Construction Type
Ball Valves
Butterfly Valves
Globe Valves
Gate Valves
Diaphragm Valves
Many different types of manual valves are used in industrial applications
worldwide. The following article will cover the general mechanism and function
of the most typical of these valves used in steam systems, such asball
valves, butterfly valves, globe valves, gate valves, and diaphragm valves.
Ball Valves
Ball valves offer very good shut-off capabilities. A simple
quarter-turn (90°) completely opens or closes the valve.
This characteristic minimizes valve operation time and
decreases the likelihood of leakage due to wear from the
gland seal.
Ball valves can be divided into two categories: reduced
bore and full bore. In reduced bore valves, the valve
opening is smaller than the diameter of the piping; in full
bore valves, the valve opening is the same size as the
diameter of the piping. Full bore ball valves are often
valued because they minimize the pressure drop across
the valve.
 Butterfly Valves
In butterfly valves, the flow is regulated through a disc-type element held in place
in the center of the valve by a rod. Similar to ball valves, valve operation time is
short because the valving element is simply rotated a quarter turn (90°) to open or
close the passageway.

Butterfly valves are characterized by their

simple construction, lightness in weight, and
compact design. Their face-to-face dimension
is often extremely small, making the pressure
drop across a butterfly valve much smaller
than globe valves (see below). Materials used
for the valving element and sealing can limit
their applications at higher temperatures or
with certain types of fluids. Butterfly valves are
often used on applications for water and air,
and in applications with large pipe diameters.
Globe Valves
The globe valve is suitable for use on a wide variety of
applications, from flow rate control to open/close operation.
In this type of valve, flow rate control is determined not by the
size of the opening in the valve seat, but rather by the lift of the
valve plug (the distance the valve plug is from the valve seat). One
feature of globe valves is that even if used in the partially open
position, there is less risk of damage to the valve seat or valve
plug by the fluid than with other types of manual valves. Among
the various configurations available, needle type globe valves are
particularly well suited for flow rate control.
 Gate Valves
The construction of a gate valve is similar to that of a floodgate: flow is controlled by raising or
lowering the valving element, which is generally available in three different types: solid (plain),
flexible, and split. The latter two types help prevent the valving element and body from being
deformed due to various operating conditions.
Like ball valves, gate valves are not usually used to regulate flow. One of the reasons for this is
because the valving element can be damaged when in the partially open position. Similarly, they
also limit the pressure drop across the valve when fully open. However, setting the valve to the
fully open or closed position requires the handle to be turned many times, which generally
makes these valves have the longest operating times among those valve types mentioned here.
 Diaphragm Valves
Diaphragm valves use a 'pinching' method to stop the valve flow using a flexible diaphragm.
They are available in two types: weir and straight-way. The most commonly seen of the two
is the weir-type. This is because the straight-way type requires additional stretching of the
diaphragm, which can shorten the diaphragm's life-span.
One of the major advantages of using diaphragm valves is that the valve components can
be isolated from the process fluid. Similarly, this construction helps prevent leakage of the
fluid without the use of a gland seal (packing) as seen in other types of valves. One the
other hand, the diaphragm becomes worn more easily and regular maintenance is
necessary if the valve is used on a regular basis. These types of valves are generally not
suited for very high temperature fluids and are mainly used on liquid systems.