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ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY
2
Chapter Outline
• Basic Laws of Vector Algebra
• Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• Transformations between Coordinate
Systems
• Gradient of a Scalar Field
• Divergence of a Vector Field
• Curl of a Vector Field
• Laplacian Operator
3
Scalar
A scalar is a quantity that has only
magnitude
E.g. of Scalars:
Time, mass, distance, temperature,
electrical potential etc
4
Vector
A vector is a quantity that has both
magnitude and direction.
E.g. of Vectors:
Velocity, force, displacement, electric
field intensity etc.
5
Basic Laws of Vector Algebra
• Cartesian coordinate systems
6
Vector in Cartesian Coordinates
• A vector A in Cartesian Coordinates
maybe represented as
A Ax , Ay , Az
• OR
A xˆAx yˆAy zˆAz
7
Vector in Cartesian Coordinates
• Vector A has
magnitude A = |A| to
the direction of
propagation.
9
Unit Vectors
• A unit vector along vector A is;
• A vector with magnitude = 1 (unity)
• Directed along the coordinate axes in the
direction of increasing coordinate values
10
Unit Vectors
• Vector A can be represented as
A xˆAx yˆ Ay zˆAz
A Ax Ay Az
2 2 2
11
Unit Vectors
• Unit vector in the direction of vector A is
A A
aA
Ax Ay Az
2 2 2 A
12
Example 1: Unit Vector
• Specify the unit vector extending from the
origin towards the point
G2,2,1
13
Solution to Example 1
Construct the vector extending from origin
to point G
G 2 xˆ 2 yˆ zˆ
Find the magnitude of G
G 22
2 1 3
2 2
14
Solution to Example 1
• So, unit vector is
G 2 2 1
aG xˆ yˆ zˆ
G 3 3 3
0.667 xˆ 0.667 yˆ 0.333zˆ
15
Equality of vectors
• A and B are equal when they have equal
magnitudes and identical unit vectors.
16
Vector Algebra
• For addition and subtraction of A and B,
C A B xˆ Ax Bx yˆ Ay B y zˆ Az Bz
D A B xˆ A B yˆ A
x x y By zˆ A
z Bz
17
Example 2: Vector Algebra
If A 10x̂ 4 ŷ 6ẑ
B 2 xˆ ŷ
Find:
(a) The component of A along ŷ
(b) The magnitude of 3 A B
(c) A unit vector C along A 2 B
18
Solution to Example 2
(a) The component of A along ŷ is
Ay 4
(b) 3 A B 310,4,6 2,1,0
30,12,18 2,1,0
28,13,18
28x̂ 13ŷ 18ẑ
19
Solution to Example 2
Hence, the magnitude of 3 A B is:
3A B 28 2
13 18 35.74
2 2
(c) Let C A 2 B
10,4,6 4,2,0
14,2,6
14x̂ 2 ŷ 6ẑ
20
Solution to Example 2
So, the unit vector along Cis:
cˆ
C
14,2,6
C 14 2 6
2 2 2
14 2 6
xˆ yˆ zˆ
15.36 15.36 15.36
0.911xˆ 0.130 yˆ 0.391zˆ
21
Position and Distance Vectors
• The position vector rP of point P is
the vector from origin O to point P
rP OP xa x ya y za z
22
Position and Distance Vectors
rP 3a x 4a y 5a z
23
Position and Distance Vectors
• If we have two
position vectors, rP
and rQ , the third
vector or distance
vector can be defined
as rPQ :-
rPQ rQ rP
24
Example 3: Position Vectors
Point P and Q are located at 0,2,4
and 3,1,5 . Calculate:
(a) The position vector P
(b) The distance vector from P to Q
(c) The distance between P and Q
(d) A vector parallel to PQ with magnitude of 10
25
Solution to Example 3
(a) rP 0a x 2a y 4a z 2a y 4a z
(b) rPQ rQ rP
3,1,5 0,2,4
3a x a y a z
(c) Since rPQ is a distance vector, the distance
between P and Q is the magnitude of this
distance vector.
26
Solution to Example 3
Distance, d
d rPQ 32
1 1 3.317
2 2
(d) Let the required vector be A then
A Aa A
Where A 10 is the magnitude of A
27
Solution to Example 3
Since A is parallel to PQ , it must have
the same unit vector as rPQ or rQP
rPQ 3,1,1
aA
rPQ 3.317
So, A 10
3, 1,1
3.317
28
Multiplication of Vectors
• When two vectors A and B are multiplied,
the result is either a scalar or vector,
depending on how they are multiplied.
29
Scalar or Dot Product
•The dot product of two vectors, A and B is
defined as the product of the magnitude of A ,
the magnitude of B and the cosine of the
smaller angle between them.
A B A B cos AB
30
Dot Product in Cartesian
32
Dot Product in Cartesian
• The two vectors, A and B are said to be
perpendicular or orthogonal (90°) with
each other if;
AB 0
33
Laws of Dot Product
• Dot product obeys the following:
– Commutative Law AB BA
– Distributive Law 2
A A A A
2
A B C A B A C
34
Properties of dot product
ax ax a y a y az az 1
ax a y a y az az ax 0
35
Vector or Cross Product
• The cross product of two vectors, A and B is a
vector, which is
equalto the product of the
magnitudes of A and B and the sine of smaller
angle between them
A B nˆ A B sin AB
36
Vector or Cross Product
A B nˆ A B sin AB
Direction of n̂ is
perpendicular (90°) to
the plane containing
A and B
37
Vector or Cross Product
It is also along one
of the two possible
perpendiculars
which is in direction
of advance of right
hand screw.
38
Cross product in Cartesian
• The cross product of two vectors of Cartesian
coordinate:
A Axa x Aya y Aza z
B Bxa x Bya y Bza z
yields the sum of nine simpler cross products,
each involving two unit vectors.
39
Cross product in Cartesian
• By using the properties of cross product, it gives
A B Ay Bz Az By a x Az Bx Ax Bz a y Ax By Ay Bx a z
41
Properties of Vector Product
Properties of cross product of unit vectors:
ax a y az , a y az ax , az ax a y
42
Example 4:Dot & Cross Product
A 2a x 3a y 4a z
B a x 5a y 6a z
43
Solution to Example 4
A B Ax Bx Ay B y Az Bz
(2)( 1) (3)( 5) (4)(6)
41
44
Solution to Example 4
The cross product is:
ax ay az ax a y az
A B Ax Ay Az 2 3 4
Bx By Bz 1 5 6
(3)(6) (4)( 5)a x
(2)(6) (4)( 1)a y
(2)( 5) (3)( 1)a z
2a x 8a y 7a z
45
Scalar & Vector Triple Product
• A scalar triple product is
A B C B C A C A B
A B C BA C CA B
46
Example 5
47
Solution to Example 5
x̂ ŷ ẑ
A B 1 1 2 x̂3 ŷ ẑ
0 1 1
x̂ ŷ ẑ
A B C 3 1 1 x̂3 ŷ7 ẑ2
2 0 3
48
Coordinate Systems
• Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, z )
• Spherical coordinates (r , , )
49
Cartesian coordinates
• Consists of three mutually orthogonal axes
( x, y, z ) and a point in space is denoted
as P( x, y, z )
50
Cartesian Coordinates
• Unit vector of a x , a y , a z in the direction of
increasing coordinate value.
51
Cartesian Coordinates
• Differential in
Length
dL dxa x dya y dza z
52
Cartesian Coordinates
• Differential Surface
53
Cartesian Coordinates
• Differential Surface
dSx dydza x
dS y dxdza y
dSz dxdya z
54
Cartesian Coordinates
• Differential Volume
dV dxdydz z
x
55
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
z
x 56
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
• Form by three surfaces or planes:
– Plane of z (constant value of z)
– Cylinder centered on the z axis with a radius
of . Some books use the notation r .
– Plane perpendicular to x-y plane and rotate
about the z axis by angle of
• Unit vector of a , a , a z in the direction of
increasing coordinate value.
57
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
• Differential in Length dL da da dza z
58
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
• Increment in
length for
direction is:
d
• d is not
increment in
length!
59
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
• Differential Surface
dS ddza
dS ddza
dSz dda z
60
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates
• Differential volume dV dddz
61
Example 6
A cylinder with radius of and length of L
Determine:
62
Solution to Example 6
• (i) For volume enclosed, we integrate;
V dV
v
2 z L
0
dddz
0 z 0
2
2
0 z L0 z
0
2
2
2 L
2
2 L 63
Solution to Example 6
• (ii) For surface area, we add the area of
each surfaces;
2 L 2 2
S ddz dd dd
0 z 0 0 0 0 0
sides bottom top
2
2
z 0 z 0
2 zL 2 2
0
0
2 0
2
2L 2 2
2L 2 2 64
Example 7
The surfaces 3, 5, 100 0
, 130 0
, z 3, z 4.5
define a closed surface. Find:
65
Solution to Example 7
(a) The enclosed volume;
5 2.269 4.5
V
3
1.745
dddz
z 3
5
2 2.269
1.745 3 z
4.5
3
2
(8)(0.524) (1.5)
Must convert
into radians
6.288
66
Solution to Example 7
(b) The total area of the enclosed surface:
20.7
67
Spherical Coordinates
68
Spherical Coordinates
• Point P in spherical coordinate, P(r , , )
70
Spherical Coordinates
• Differential in length dL drar rda r sin da
71
Spherical Coordinates
• Differential Surface
72
Spherical Coordinates
• Differential Surface
dS r r sin dda r
2
73
Spherical Coordinates
• Differential Volume dV r 2 sin drdd
74
Spherical Coordinates
• However, the increment of length is
different from the differential increment
previously, where:
75
Example 8
A sphere of radius 2 cm contains a volume charge
density ρv given by
v 4 cos 2 C/m 3
77
Cartesian to Cylindrical
Transformations
• Relationships between (x, y, z) and (r, φ, z) are
shown.
rˆ xˆ cos yˆ sin
ˆ xˆ sin yˆ cos
xˆ rˆ cos ˆ sin ,
yˆ rˆ sin ˆ cos
78
Cartesian to Spherical
Transformations
• Relationships
between (x, y, z)
and (r, θ, Φ) are
shown.
79
Cartesian to Spherical
Transformations
• Relationships between (x, y, z) and (r, θ, Φ)
are shown.
84
Gradient of a scalar field
The differential distances dx, dy, dz are the
components of the differential distance vector dL :
T T T
dT a x dL a y dL a z dL
x y z
T T T
a x ay a z dL
x y z 86
Gradient of a scalar field
The vector inside square brackets defines the
change of temperature dT corresponding to a
vector change in position dL .
This vector is called Gradient of Scalar T.
For Cartesian coordinate, grad T:
dT T T T
T ax ay az
dL x y z
The symbol is called the del or gradient
operator. 87
Gradient of a scalar field
• Gradient operator needs dl aˆl dl to be scalar
quantity.
dT
• Directional derivative of T is given by dl T aˆl
ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ 1
R (spherical )
R R R sin 88
Example 10
Find the directional derivative of T x y z
2 2
(1,−1, 2).
89
Solution to Example 10
2
GradT : T ˆ
x
x ˆ
y
ˆ
z
x y 2
z
ˆ
x 2 x ˆ
y 2yz ˆ
zy 2
y z
We denote l as the given direction,
Unit vector is I xˆ 2 yˆ 3 zˆ 2
and I xˆ 2 yˆ 3 zˆ 2 xˆ 2 yˆ 3 zˆ 2
aˆl
I 2 3 2
2 2 2
17
dT 4 x 6 yz 2 y 2 10
T aˆl
dl 1, 1, 2 17 1, 1, 2 17 90
Example 11
• Find the gradient of these scalars:
z
(a) V e sin 2 x cosh y
(b) U r z cos 2
2
91
Solution to Example 11
V V V
V ax ay az
x y z
z z
2e cos 2 x cosh ya x e sin 2 x sinh ya y
z
e sin 2 x cosh ya z
92
Solution to Example 11
U 1 U U
U ar a az
r r z
2rz cos 2a r 2rz sin 2a
r cos 2a z
2
93
Solution to Example 11
W 1 W 1 W
W aR a a
R R R sin
10 sin cos a R 10 sin 2 cos a
2
10 sin sin a
94
Divergence of a vector field
Illustration of the divergence of a vector
field at point P:
A dS
div A A lim s
v 0 v
96
Divergence of a vector field
What is A dS ?? Vector field A at
closed surface S
s
97
Divergence of a vector field
Where,
A dS
A dS
s front back left right top bottom
And, v is volume enclosed by surface S
98
Divergence of a vector field
For Cartesian coordinate:
Ax A y Az
A
x y z
1 1 A Az
A rAr
r r r z
99
Divergence of a vector field
For Spherical coordinate:
1 A sin
A 2
1
R AR
2
R sin
1 A
R sin
R R
100
Divergence of a vector field
• Example: A point
charge q
• Total flux of the
electric field E
due to q is
Total Flux E ds
S
101
Divergence of a vector field
• Net outward flux
per unit volume i.e
the div of E is
Ex E y Ez
E div E
x y z
102
Example 12
Find divergence of these vectors:
x
2
x yz 0 xz
y z
2 xyz x
104
Solution to Example 12
(b) Use divergence for cylindrical coordinate:
1 1 Q Q z
Q rQr
r r r z
1 2
r r
r sin
1 2
r
r z z cos
z
2 sin cos
105
Solution to Example 12
(c) Use divergence for Spherical coordinate:
W sin
W 2
1
R WR
2
1
R sin
1 W
R sin
R R
2
1
cos 1
R sin
R sin 2 cos
R R
1
cos
R sin
2 cos cos
106
Divergence Theorem
It states that the total outward flux of a vector
field E at the closed surface S is the same as
volume integral of divergence of E.
S
E ds Edv (divergenc e theorem)
v
107
Example 13
A vector field D r 3
a r exists in the region
between two concentric cylindrical surfaces
defined by r = 1 and r = 2, with both cylinders
extending between z = 0 and z = 5. Verify the
divergence theorem by evaluating:
(a) D ds
S
(b) DdV
V
108
Solution to Example 13
(a) For two concentric cylinder, the left side:
2 5
0 z 0
r 4 a r ddz(a r )
r 1
10
109
Solution to Example 13
2 5
Douter
0 z 0
r 3 a r rddz(a r )
r 2
2 5
0 z 0
r 4 a r ddz(a r )
r 2
160
2 2
Dbottom
r 1 0
r 3 a r rddr (a z )
z 0
0
2 2
Dtop
r 1 0
r 3 a r rddr (a z )
z 5
0
110
Solution to Example 13
• Therefore:
D dS 10 160 0 0
S
150
111
Solution to Example 13
(b) For the right side of Divergence Theorem,
evaluate divergence of D
D
1
r r
rr 3 4r 2
5 2 2
• So,
DdV
z 0 0 r 1
4r 2 rdrddz
2
5
4 2
r 150
r 1
0
z 0 112
Curl of a vector field
The curl of vector A is an axial (rotational)
vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area
113
Curl of a vector field
The circulation of B
around closed contour
C:
B dl
B dl
C ab bc cd da
114
Curl of a vector field
• Curl of a vector field B is defined as:
1
B curl B lim n̂ B dl
s 0 s
C max
115
Curl of a vector field
• Curl is used to measure the uniformity of a field
• Uniform field, circulation is zero
• Non-uniform field, e.g azimuthal field, circulation
is not zero
116
Vector identities involving curl
• For any two vectors A and B:
(1) A B A B
(2) ( A) 0 for any vector A
(3) (V ) 0 for any scalar function V
117
Curl in Cartesian coordinates
• For Cartesian coordinates:
ax ay az
A
x y z
Ax Ay Az
118
Curl in cylindrical coordinates
• For cylindrical coordinates:
ar ra az
1
A
r r z
Ar rA Az
122
Solution to Example 14
(b) Use curl for cylindrical coordinate
1 Q z Q Q r Q z
1 rQ Q r
Q r
a
r x
a a z
r z z r y
z
sin r 2 a r 0 0 a
r
1
3r 2 z r cos a z
r
z sin r 3 a r 3rz cos a z
1
r
123
Solution to Example 14
(c) Use curl for Spherical coordinate:
1 sin W W 1 1 W R RW
W a a
R sin R sin θ
R
R
1 ( RW ) W R
a φ
R R
cos 2
1 cos sin R sin cos 1 1 R R cos
a R aθ
R sin R sin R
( R 2 sin cos ) cos 2
1 R
aφ
R R
124
Solution to Example 14
• (c) continued…
1
cos 2 R sin sin a R 0 cos a
1
R sin R
1 sin
2 R sin cos 2 a
R R
cos 2 cos
sin a R a
R sin R
1
2 cos 3 sin a
R
125
Stokes’s Theorem
• Converts surface integral of the curl of a
vector over an open surface S into a line
integral of the vector along the contour C
bounding the surface S
B ds B dl
S
C
(Stoke' s theorem)
126
Example 15
A vector field is given by B ẑ cos / r . Verify
Stokes’s theorem for a segment of a cylindrical
surface defined by r = 2, π/3 ≤ φ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ z ≤ 3
as shown.
127
Solution to Example 15
• Stokes’s theorem states that:
B ds B dl
S
C
• Left-hand side:
First, use curl in cylindrical coordinates
1 Bz B Br Bz 1 Br
B r
ˆ
φ̂ ẑ
rB
r z z r r z
sin cos
rˆ 2 φ̂ 2
r r
128
Solution to Example 15
The integral of B over the specified
surface S with r = 2 is:
2
sin cos
3
129
Solution to Example 15
• Right-hand side:
Definition of field B on segments ab, bc,
cd, and da is
b c d a
B dl B
C
a
ab dl Bbc dl Bcd dl Bda dl
b c d
130
Solution to Example 15
• At different segments,
Bab Bcd zˆcos / 2 0 where dl φ̂rdφ 0
Bbc ẑcos 2 / 2 where 2
Bda ẑcos / 3 / 2 ẑ 4 where dl ẑdz
1
a 0
• Thus, 1 3
CB dl d ẑ 4 ẑdz 3 4 dz 4
• which is the same as the left hand side (proved!)
131
Laplacian of a Scalar
• Laplacian of a scalar V is denoted by 2V .
2 V V
V V V
ax ay az ax ay az
x y z x y z
2V 2V 2V
x 2
y 2
z 2
132
Example 16
Find the Laplacian of these scalars:
z
(a) V e sin 2 x cosh y
(b) U z cos2
2
133
Solution to Example 16
z
• (a) V 2e sin 2 x cosh y
2
• (b) U 0
2
10 cos
• (c)
W
2
1 2 cos2
r
134
Laplacian of a vector
• For vector E given in Cartesian coordinates as:
E xˆE x yˆE y zˆE z
2
2
2
E 2 2 2 E xˆ 2 E x yˆ 2 E y zˆ 2 E z
2
x y z
135
Laplacian of a vector
• In Cartesian coordinates, the Laplacian of a
vector is a vector whose components are equal
to the Laplacians of the vector components.
• Through direct substitution, we can simplify it as
2 E E E
136