Basic Control Actions and Controller Types

UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Introduction

 A controller compares the actual value of output
with the reference input, determines the deviation,
and produces a control signal that will reduce the
deviation to zero or to a small value.
 The manner in which the controller produces the

control signal is called the control action.
Classifications of Controllers
Dis-continuous Continuous
ON-OFF Controllers
Composite Action Controllers
Two Position
controller
Single Action Controllers PI
Multi Position
controller
Floating Mode P I D PD
controller
PID
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Related Terms and definitions
Continuous Controller : Controller that responds to

continuous input variables are called continuous
controller.
Discrete Controller : Controller that responds to

discrete signal are called discrete controllers.
Process Equation: A process equation describes the

mathematical relationship among the input and
output variables.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Related Terms and definitions
Process Load: The term process load refers to a set
of parameters that influences or bring changes in
the process excluding the controlled variable.
Nominal Load: All the parameters have their normal
or nominal value
Transient : A temporary or sudden change or the
variation of one of the variable is called transient.
Process Lag : A process control loop responds to

ensure that some finite time later, the variable
returns to the set point value. Part of this time is
consumed by the process itself and that time is
called process lag.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Related Terms and definations
Control Lag : Control lag refers to the time for the

process control loop to make necessary adjustment
to the final control element.
Cycling : Oscillation of error about the zero value.

This means the dynamic variable cycling above and
below the set point. For cycling we are interested in
amplitude and period of oscillation.
Dead Time : Another time variable associated with

process control is a function of both process control
system and the process. This is the elapsed time
between the instant of deviation (error) occurs and
when the corrective action first occurs.
Discontinuous Controller Modes:
In these controller modes the controller output will

be discontinuous with respect to controlled variable
error.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller ON-OFF CONTROLLERS
Two Position Controller
A two position controller is a device that

has two operating conditions:
 Completely ON or
 Completely OFF.
2 Position Controller: Operation
 Fig.1 shows the input to output, characteristic
waveform for a two position controller that switches
from its "OFF" state to its "ON" state when the
measured variable increases above the set point.
 Conversely, it switches from its "ON" state to its

"OFF" state when the measured variable decreases
below the set-point.
 This device provides an output determined by whether

the error signal is above or below the set-point.
 The magnitude of the error signal is above or below

the set-point. The magnitude of the error signal past
that point is of no concern to the controller.
Two Position Controller: Operation
ON
O
U
T
P
U
T
OFF
SET POINT Measured Variable
Fig.1: Two position controller

NEUTRAL ZONE or DEAD BAND
Practically in designing of two position controller,
whenever the controller output has to change over
from 0% to 100% or vice-versa, there is a differential
gap known as Neutral zone around the zero error
point where virtually no controller output results.
This dead band or neutral
zone is purposefully is
designed above or below a
certain limit to avoid the
excessive cycling
Example of 2 Position Controller
Figure: Two Position Control System

Applications
Generally the two-position control action mode is
best adapted to
 Large-scale systems with relatively slow process rates

Ex : Room heating systems, air-conditioning systems.
 Systems in which large-scale changes are not common
Ex : Liquid bath temperature control, level control in

large-volume tanks.
 The controlled process is the volume of water in

the tank.
 The controlled variable is the leveling the tank. It

is measured by a level detector that sends
information to the controller.
 The output of the controller is sent to the final

control element, which is a solenoid valve, that
controls the flow of water into the tank.
 As the water level decreases initially, a point is
reached where the measured variable drops below
the set point. This creates a positive error
signal. The controller opens the final control
element fully. Water is subsequently injected into
the tank, and the water level rises.
 As soon as the water level rises above the set-

point, a negative error signal is developed. The
negative error signal causes the controller to shut
the final control element. This opening and closing
of the final control element results in a cycling
characteristic of the measured variable.
Modes of Automatic Control
 The mode of control is the manner in which a
control system makes corrections relative to an
error that exists between the desired value (set-
point) of a controlled variable and its actual value.
 The mode of control used for a specific application
depends on the characteristics of the process
being controlled.
 For example, some processes can be operated
over a wide band, while others must be maintained
very close to the set-point.
 Also, some processes change relatively slowly,
while others change almost immediately.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller ON-OFF Controller :Multi position Controller
Multimode/ Multi-position Controller:
• Multimode controller is a logical extension of
ON/OFF controller.
• It is used to provide several intermediate, rather

than two, namely 0% (OFF) and 100 % (ON)
other several intermediate setting of the
controller output are provided.
• This discontinuous control is used in an attempt to

reduce the cycling behavior and overshoot and
undershoot inherent in the On/Off controller.
• The most common example is a 3-position

controller
3-position Controller:
100 % e > e2 As long as the error is between e1 and

e2 of the set point, the controller stays
P= 50% -e1< e <e2 at the nominal setting of 50 %; if error
exceeds the set point by e2 or more
0% e < -e1
the output is increased by 100%. If it is
less than the set point by -e1 or more,
the controller output is zero.
Floating Control Mode
 In a floating control, the specific output of the
controller is not uniquely determined by the error.
 If the error is zero the output does not change but
remains (floats) at whatever setting it was when the
error went to zero.
 When the error moves off zero, the controller output
again begins to change
Types of Floating mode controller
 Single Speed Floating Control Mode:

In the single-speed floating mode, the output
of the control element changes at a fixed rate when
the error exceeds the neutral zone.
 Multi Speed Floating Control Mode:

In the multi-speed floating mode, not one but
several possible speeds (rates) are changed by
controller output. Usually, the rate increases as the
deviation exceeds certain rate.
in this control action, the specific controller output is

not uniquely determined by error unlike the previous
mode. if error is zero, the controller output does not
change but remains (floats) at whatever setting it was
when error went to zero. whenever the error occurs
the controller output again begins to change.
1.Single Speed:
In the single-speed floating mode, the output of
the control element changes at a fixed rate when the
error exceeds the neutral zone.
2. Multi Speed:
In the multi-speed floating mode, not one but
several possible speeds (rates) are changed by
controller output. Usually, the rate increases as the
deviation exceeds certain rate.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Single Speed Floating Control Mode
In this mode, controller output changes at a fix rate whatever
the error exceeds the neutral zone.
The analytical expression is

𝒅𝒑
= ±𝑲𝑭 𝒆 > Neutral Zone
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒑
Where = 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒅𝒕
K F = Rate Constant [ % / sec]
The specific output is obtained by integrating the above

equation.
P= ±𝑲𝑭 t + P(0),
where P(0) is initial setting of the controller when error is zero.
The characteristic of single speed floating control mode controller is
shown in below fig.
Consider the graph showing controller output with error, that exceeds.
The neutral zone, after certain instants of time as shown in fig.
Multiple Speed Floating Control Mode
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Multiple Speed Floating Control Mode
The single speed or multiple speed floating action can be

employed with general flow control system or pressure control
system with small capacities and having self-regulation to some
extent with small dead time or lag
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Continuous Controller Modes
• Unlike the discontinuous modes of

operation, in continuous modes, there is a
relation existing between controller output
and error.
• Whenever there is a deviation of the
controlled variable from set point. The
controller responds in a smooth fashion to
achieve the control object.
• Some of the continuous modes are
natural extension of discontinuous modes
itself.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Contiguous Controller Mode
Proportional Controller Mode
 It is basically natural extension of two position
controller mode.
 In this mode, there is a smooth relation between
controller output and error before the output
saturate to 0% [OFF state] or 100% [ON state].
 Between these two saturation level, there is a band
of errors, where every values of error has a unique
value of controller output. i.e. there is one to one
correspondence existing between controller
output and error.
 This range of error to cover 0 to 100% controller
output is known as proportional band.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Multiple Speed Floating Control Mode
 The analytical expression is written within the
proportional band which describe the operation of
the proportion control action as :
P = K p e + P0 ……………..1
Where Kp is proportional gain and
P0 is initial value of controller output
 The transfer function representation is obtained by

applying Laplace Transform to above equation
P(s) = Kp . E(s)
here, initial value assumed to be zero
E(s) Kp P(s)
P Controller Mode
Figure. 2.0
Fig. 2.0 represents the characteristics of P- control

action. The proportional band (PB) is related to the
gain of the P-controller KP and can be defined as
100
P= , thus by selection of KP, PB can be
𝐾𝑃
changed
The proportional band of a proportional controller
depends on the inverse of the gain.
Contiguous Controller Mode
P Controller Mode
Figure. 2.1
In Fig. 2.0 , assume a step change in deviation,

Let e = A [step change]
P = KP. e ,
P = KP A
Biggest question : why not Proportional
controller?
Offset or residual error :
 one of the main disadvantage of the P
control action is that it produces a
permanent residual error in the operating
point of the controlled variable, when a
process load change results in error. This
residual error is known is OFFSET.
 This error can be minimized by larger
constant Kp which will also reduce the
proportion band
An offset error must occur if a proportional controller
requires a new zero-error output following a load change
Illustration of OFFSET
consider first order process having process
equation or transfer function
𝐶(𝑠) 1
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝑇𝑆
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Illustration of OFFSET
• If we assume a sudden change in the input
causing a sudden error.
• The proportional controller adjust the final
control element proportionately affecting the
dynamics of the process to bring back the
output to the set point value.
• This is possible if and only if the steady
state error is zero.
• From the statement of steady state error

𝑆. 𝑅(𝑠)
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Lt
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝐴
Let R(s) = [step change]
𝑆
𝐴
𝑆. 𝑆
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Lt
𝑠→0 𝐾𝑝
1+
1 + 𝑇𝑆
𝐴
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = .
1 + 𝐾𝑃
• This steady state error is not zero but inversely
proportional to gain Kp.
• Thus this control action fails to make the error zero
whenever the output changes due to change in input
or load variable.
• This is known as offset.
• From previous Eqn.

1
Offset ∝
𝐾𝑃
 Both PB and Offset are inversely proportional to gain

KP. To reduce the offset , KP should be increased but it
reduces the width of PB and the control mode
changes to simple ON and OFF mode.
 Hence offset constitutes the inherent disadvantage of

P controller mode.
Electronic Proportional Controller
Proportional Controller
Advantages of Proportional Controller
 Construction is simple
 These controllers has high loop gain
 It has steady state tracking accuracy
 It improves the disturbances signal reduction
 It stabilizes the gain and makes the system more stable
Dis-advantages of Proportional Controller
 It cannot accommodate load change without sustained
deviation.
 It produces the constant steady state error.
 For very large gain it leads to instability of the system
 It has a sluggish i.e. slow response for wide proportional
band.
 It makes the system less sensitive to parameter
variation
Integral Control Action
This mode is an extension of floating control mode.

Unlike the previous discontinuous mode, the rate of
change of controller output is not constant at ±KF but
is directly proportional to error.
The analytic expression may be written as
𝑑𝑝
∝e
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝
= KI . e (1)
𝑑𝑡
where, KI is integral scaling
From (1), the rate of controller o/p is proportional to the error.
Hence, when error comes, the controller responds by sending an
output at a rate that depends upon the size of the error and
integral scaling KI
 From Eqn (1), the rate of controller o/p is proportional to

the error. Hence, when error comes, the controller
responds by sending an output at a rate that depends upon
the size of the error and integral scaling KI.
 for particular error, the output will begin to increase at a

rate KI %/ sec for every 1% of error.
𝑃 = 𝐾𝐼 ‫ 𝑡𝑑 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝑃 0 (2)
Where P(0) is initial value of controller o/p when error is zero
This integral scaling KI is oftenally expressed in term of integral

time Ti
𝟏
KI = (3)
𝑻𝒊
From Eqn (2) and (3)

𝟏
𝑃= ‫׬‬ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑃 0 (4)
𝑻𝒊
The unit of integral time is seconds or minutes
The transfer function of the integral controller action is obtained
by applying LT to Eqn (4)
𝟏
𝑃 𝑠 = . E(s) (5)
𝑻𝒊 𝒔
 The I controller adds the system deviation over time. It

integrates the system deviation.
 As a result, the rate of change (and not the value) of the
manipulated variable is proportional to the system
deviation.
 This is demonstrated by the step response of the I
controller: if the system deviation suddenly increases, the
manipulated variable increases continuously.
 The greater the system deviation, the steeper the increase in
the manipulated variable.
 For this reason the I controller is not suitable for totally
compensating remaining system deviation.
 If the system deviation is large, the manipulated variable
changes quickly.
 As a result, the system deviation becomes smaller and the

manipulated variable changes more slowly until
equilibrium is reached.
 A pure I controller is unsuitable for most controlled
systems, as it either causes oscillation of the closed loop or it
responds too slowly to system deviation in systems with a
long time response.
 In practice there are hardly any pure I controllers
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Characteristics of Integral Control Action
assume a step change in deviation,
Let e = A [step change]
𝟏 From the fig. A the
𝑷 = න 𝑨. 𝒅𝒕
𝑻𝒊 main disadvantage
of integral action is
𝑨
𝑷 = [ ]t that, its response to
𝑻𝒊
error is slow. But
however, due to its
basic nature of rate
of change of it
output, it eliminates
the error and brings
back the controlled
variable to the set
point value.
Figure. A
 Since the rate of change of controller output can be reset at
any instant of time t by changing Ti.
 This mode is oftenally referred as RESET CONTROLLER
MODE. the integral time Ti is also known as RESET
TIME.
Let see the reset effect of the integral controller

action on error by taking a first order process
𝑆. 𝑅(𝑠)
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Lt
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝑨
Let R(s) = [step change]
𝑺
𝐴
𝑠. 𝑠
𝑒𝑠𝑠 [𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟] = Lt
𝑠→0 1
1+
𝑇𝑖 𝑠 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)
𝐴
𝑒𝑠𝑠 [𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟] = =0
1+∞
 Thus it can be established that integral control action

successfully eliminates the error, but in the process, it
response is sluggish.
 The integral action, due to its basic nature, might

introduces oscillation in the controlled variable about the
set point value, whenever it deviates from the set point
values.
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Integral Control Action
Why not “Integral action” ????
The problem for integral controller is that, if there is
a zero change in slope, the controller output holds to
a constant value. This is called integral windup. The
only way to cut the wind up is to put a negative error
Integrator windup mechanism
Windup : When the controller reaches the actuator
limit, then the actuator becomes saturated and the
system effectively operates in open loop.
The integral term and the controller output may
become really large = large overshoot
The controller signal remains saturated even if the

error begins to increase; hence, very bad transients
Example: When a car is on a steep hill, the throttle

saturates when the cruise control attempts to
maintain speed
How to avoid integrator windup?

There are many ways to avoid integral windup. One
method is demonstrated in Fig. B
 This kind of system has an extra feedback path
that is generated by measuring the actual
actuator output, or the output of a model of the
saturating actuator.
 This form an error signal ( es) as the difference

between the output of the controller (v) and
output of actuator (u).
i.e es = u – v
 this error signal is feedback to the input of

the integrator through gain Kt.
 This signal es is zero, when there is no saturation,

consequently there is no effect of extra feedback
on the system.
 when the actuator is saturated, consequently the
error signal (es) is feedback to the integrator in
such a way that es goes toward zero. This implies
that controller output is kept close to the
saturation limit.
 The controller output will then change as soon as
the error changes sign and integral windup is
avoided.
Advantages of Integral Controller
 It reduces steady state error i.e. effect of offset.
 It provides high controlled output at a particular
time after the error generated is for high value of
KI.
 It responds to the continued existence of
deviation.
Dis-advantages of Integral Controller
 It is never used alone.
 It makes the system unstable for oscillatory
response.
 It introduces hunting in the system response
about its steady state condition.
Electronic Integral Controller
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Derivative Control Action
Derivative Control Action
In a derivative control mode, the controller output is
proportional to the derivative of the error. So the output
can be expressed as
𝒅𝒆𝒑
𝑷 = 𝑲𝑫
𝒅𝒕
Characteristics of Derivative Control Action
 If error is zero or the error is constant in time,
the mode provides no output.
 If there is an error, for every 1% -per-second

rate of change of error, the mode contributes an
output of KD percent.
 For direct action, a positive rate of change of

error produces a positive derivative mode
output.
Why not “ Derivative” ?
 A step change in set point causes a false step
error for the derivative controller.
 This step change causes the derivative part of the

controller to saturate the overall controller
output. This ultimately forces the final control
element to go to hard Off mode. This is called
derivative overrun.
 The solution to this problem is to feed the

derivative controller with process variable (PV)
instead of error
Examines the rate of change of the output of the

process
 The faster the change, the stronger the action
 The derivative of the output (slope) is multiplied
by a constant, Kd
 Differential control is insensitive to slow changes
 If the variable is parallel to the set point, no
change is made (slope = 0)
 Differential control is very useful when

combined with P and I control
PID control
Advantages of Derivative Controller
 It can overcome the overshoot and severe

cycling.
 It has a rapid response to counter the effect
of rapidly changing errors.
 It responds to the changes of the speed and
direction to the deviation.
 It does not affect the steady state error
directly, but anticipates the error.
 It increases the stability of the system by
initiating an early corrective action
Dis-advantages of Derivative Controller
 It cannot be used alone, since it cannot

give any output for zero or constant error.
 It is ineffective for slowly changing error
and hence causes the drift.
 It amplifies the noise signal and causes a
saturation effect on the system.
 It does not eliminate the steady state error.
(offset)
Q. Derivative control action with a gain of KD =

0.04% / (%/min) is needed to control flow
through a pipe. The flow surges with a minimum
period of 2.2 s. The input signal has a range of
0.4 to 2.0 V, and the output varies from 0.0 to
5.0 V. Develop the op amp derivative action
circuit.
Solution:
First we find the appropriate circuit
gain, GD. The derivative gain should first be
converted to the units of seconds:
0.04%ൗ ∗ 1minΤ60sec
(% / min)
= 2.4%ൗ(% / 𝑆)
This result says that for every 1% / s rate of change of

input, the output should change by 2.4%.
So, 1% / s of the input is

(0.01)(1.6 V/ s) = 0.016 V/ s.
Then 2.4% of the output is simply
(0.024)(5) = 0.12V.
So, GD = (0.12 V / 0.016 V / s) = 7.5 s = R 2 C

Le t C = 20 µF, R 2=375 kΩ
To find, we need the maximum frequency. If the
minimum period is 2.2 s, then the maximum frequency
is 1/2.2s = 0.45Hz.
From the design guidelines, we set
2 π fmax R1 C =0.1 = 2 π (0.45) R1 20 µF
We can now solve for
R1≈1800 Ω
UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller composite Controllers Action

Basic Control Actions and Controller Types

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UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller

UNIT-2 Basic control Actions and Controller Introduction

 The manner in which the controller produces the

Continuous Controller : Controller that responds to

Discrete Controller : Controller that responds to

Process Equation: A process equation describes the

Process Lag : A process control loop responds to

Control Lag : Control lag refers to the time for the

Cycling : Oscillation of error about the zero value.

Dead Time : Another time variable associated with

In these controller modes the controller output will

A two position controller is a device that

 Conversely, it switches from its "ON" state to its

 This device provides an output determined by whether

 The magnitude of the error signal is above or below

SET POINT Measured Variable

Fig.1: Two position controller

Figure: Two Position Control System

 Large-scale systems with relatively slow process rates

 Systems in which large-scale changes are not common

Ex : Liquid bath temperature control, level control in

 The controlled process is the volume of water in

 The controlled variable is the leveling the tank. It

 The output of the controller is sent to the final

 As soon as the water level rises above the set-

• It is used to provide several intermediate, rather

• This discontinuous control is used in an attempt to

• The most common example is a 3-position

100 % e > e2 As long as the error is between e1 and

 Single Speed Floating Control Mode:

 Multi Speed Floating Control Mode:

in this control action, the specific controller output is

The analytical expression is

The specific output is obtained by integrating the above

The single speed or multiple speed floating action can be

• Unlike the discontinuous modes of

 The transfer function representation is obtained by

Fig. 2.0 represents the characteristics of P- control

In Fig. 2.0 , assume a step change in deviation,

• From the statement of steady state error

• From previous Eqn.

 Both PB and Offset are inversely proportional to gain

 Hence offset constitutes the inherent disadvantage of

This mode is an extension of floating control mode.

 From Eqn (1), the rate of controller o/p is proportional to

 for particular error, the output will begin to increase at a

This integral scaling KI is oftenally expressed in term of integral

From Eqn (2) and (3)

 The I controller adds the system deviation over time. It

 As a result, the system deviation becomes smaller and the

Let see the reset effect of the integral controller

 Thus it can be established that integral control action

 The integral action, due to its basic nature, might

The controller signal remains saturated even if the

Example: When a car is on a steep hill, the throttle

How to avoid integrator windup?

 This form an error signal ( es) as the difference

 this error signal is feedback to the input of

 This signal es is zero, when there is no saturation,

 If there is an error, for every 1% -per-second

 For direct action, a positive rate of change of

 This step change causes the derivative part of the

 The solution to this problem is to feed the