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MECHATRONICS
Magnetic Actuators and Sensors
Ramon Bargalló Perpiñà
ramon.bargallo@upc.edu
Room UR1- BA17 (street level plant)
Objective: Electromagnetism theory applied to
actuators and sensors design.
- Electromagnetism principles.
Problem sessions to show how apply theory concepts to basic and advanced calculation,
Practical sessions to train the student to use and post-processing FE software to design
electromechanical actuators and sensors.
Every student must solve a set of homework exercises and design a sensor or actuator using
these FE tools.
Grade report:
Homework exercises: 20 %
Project Design: 40%
Laboratory sessions: 20%
Final test: 20%
TOOLS:
-http://www.femm.info/wiki/HomePage
-LUA editor:
-http://www.femm.info/Archives/contrib/femmed-bin.zip
-http://forja.rediris.es/frs/download.php/781/QtOctave-0.7.2.exe
http://atenea.upc.edu
Magnetic Actuators and Sensors use magnetic fields to
produce and sense motion.
What is an actuator?
It can be understood by the fact that the EM quantities can not be “seen” or
“touched” (contrarily to others, such as mechanical and thermal quantities).
While the formalism and the basic concepts of the EM are relatively simple, realistic
problems can be very complicated and difficult to solve. Some examples of these
complications are:
• Complicated geometry.
• Materials non-linearity.
• Non-static field sources.
It is impossible to find analytical solutions for many problems and that is the main
reason why numerical methods have become widely used tools in Electrical
Engineering today.
Maxwell equations
The force is summarized in terms of the electric field intensity E and magnetic
flux density B by the Lorentz (1853-1928) force law:
f q E v B
Gauss’s law
Gauss’s law describes how the electric field intensity is related to its source. The net
charge within an arbitrary volume V that is enclosed by a surface S is related to the
net electric flux through that surface by
E dS dV D E
S V
D dS dV
S V
D is the electric displacement flux density and s is the charge density. If different
materials are present, Gauss’s integral law requires that
n a Ea b Eb s
in the interface of different materials. sis the surface charge density and n
denotes the normal component of E.
Ampere’s integral law (1775-1836)
The law relating the magnetic field intensity H to its source, the current density J, is:
d
C H dl S J dS dt S D dS
A surface current density in a surface S causes a discontinuity of the magnetic field
intensity. Ampere’s law requires that
n H a H b K
in the interface of a surface. K is the surface current density and n denotes the
normal component of H.
Charge conservation law
Apply Ampere’s law to a closed surface, If the contour C is regarded as the“drawstring”
and S as the “bag,” then this limit is one in which the “string” is drawn tight so that the
contour shrinks to zero.thus the contour integral vanishes:
d
C H dl 0 S J dS dt S D dS
After, the surface integral of the electric displacement can be replaced by the total
charge enclosed:
d
S J dS dt
V
dV 0
Charge conservation law
This is the law of charge conservation. This equation shows that the net current
out of the volume requires that the net charge enclosed be decreasing with time.
The continuity condition associated with charge conservation is
d s
n J a J b 0
dt
Implicit in this condition is the assumption that J is finite. Thus, the condition does
not include the possibility of a surface current.
Faraday’s integral law (1791-1867)
The laws of Gauss and Ampere relate fields to sources. The statement of charge
conservation implied by these two laws relates these sources. New integral laws are
introduced that do not involve the charge and current densities.
Faraday’s integral law states that the circulation of E around a contour C is
determined by the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the surface
enclosed by that contour:
d
C E dl dt S B dS
The continuity condition associated with Faraday’s law is
n E a E b 0
Gauss’s integral law of magnetic flux
The net magnetic flux out of any region enclosed by a surface S must be zero:
B dS 0
S
The continuity condition associated with Gauss’s integral law of magnetic flux is:
n Ba Bb 0
differential forms of Maxwell’s equations:
Gauss’s law
E dS dV
E dV dV E
S V
E dS E dV
S V
V V
d
Ampere’s law
H dl J dS dt
D dS
C S S
C H dl S H dS
d dD
S H dS S J dS
dt
S
D dS H J
dt
Faraday’s law
d
E dl dt
B dS d dB
C S
E dS B dS E
C E dl S E dS S dt S dt
differential forms of Maxwell’s equations:
B dS B dV
S V
V
Charge conservation d
S J dS
dt
dV 0
V
S J dS J dV
V
d
J dV dV 0 J
d
V
dt V dt
0
Differential forms are better than integral forms.
The field vectors D and E and also B and H are related by the properties of the
materials at any point in the field region. These are often referred to as the
constitutive properties of the material and are given by:
0 r
0 r
Maxwell’s equations do not
make a distinction between
low and high frequency
applications, but for practical
applications it is possible to
adapt them to these two
situations.
Electostatics Magnetics
Magnetostatics Magnetodynamics
Electric E
static
Magnetic B
Current flow J
Electromagnetic Electric E
fields
Slow varying
Magnetic B
(quasi-static)
Non- Current flow J
static
Quasi- Current flow J
fast varying stationary
Electromagnetic waves
Electrostatic fields
Laplace’s equation
0
V 0
2
Laplace’s equation of the Electric field for conductive media
Ohm’s law.
E V J V 0
V 0
2
Magnetostatic fields
F F 2 F
A 0 A J
2
A0
2
The electric vector potential
In analogy to the magnetic vector potential A, we can define the electric vector
potential T which is related to the current density J by
J T
E 0
1
T 0
T 0
2
Magnetodynamic fields (low frequency quasi-stationary fields)
The basic laws of magnetodynamic fields are Ampere’s law, without consideration
of time variation of electric displacement flux density D D 0
t
B A
dB
E A
dt t
A
eddy currents Je J e E
t
1 A
quasi-stationary magnetic field in the time A J
domain t
F F 2 F
A
A 0 A
2
J
t
Assuming sinusoidal excitation currents with an angular frequency and thus
substituting
A
j A
t
A-formulation in the frequency domain to solve eddy current problems:
A j A J
2
diffusion equations
Thermal problems
Thermal conduction
Conduction is a process where the heat is transmitted inside a body or between
different bodies having physical contact. The basic equation describing thermal
conduction is (Fourier’s equation)
T
c T Q
t
c T Q
T
2
t
J2 A
Q 2 A J
t
Some simple exercises
•Given the magnetic field intensity expression in space ( A/m)
H 8 x 4 6 ( y 2 2) u x 9 x 10 y 11z ) u y 4 x u z
H J
ux uy uz
H z H y H x H z H y H x
H ux uy uz
x y z y z z x x y
H Hy H z
x
H J 11 u x 4 u y 9 12 y u z
J (2, 4, 6) 11 u x 4 u y 39 u z
Given a region of four conductors, each carrying current I = 5 A outward. In the
figure, two closed paths are defined l1 and l2. Find the integral of H along each of
the closed paths.
H dl J dS N I 4 5 20 A
C S
Since both closed paths enclose ALL conductors, the integral of H along each of the
closed paths equals 20 A.
Another example: field created by a infinite length conductor carrying I (A)
I
C
H dl 2 rH I H
2 r
In free space:
I
B 0 H 0
2 r
I
B 2000 0 H 2000 0
2 r
Infinite conductor carrying current I: revisited using Biot-Savart formulation
Expanding cross products we can write:
For an infinite solenoid the limits of integration span from 0 to , in which case:
This is quite a simple relationship. In most solenoids, which have a 3:1 or 4:1 aspect
ratio of length to diameter, the magnetic intensity is pretty constant in the center,
both radially and axially.
A coil called the primary coil establishes the magnetic flux density
B 1.1sin(2 ft ) u z (T )
A secondary coil is of thin uniform copper (conductivity: 5.8e7 S/m) wire and has
resistance R = 2. Assume I=V/R and that the magnetic field is not changed by the
secondary current. The secondary coil is square in shape, connecting the points (x,y,z)=
(0,0,0); (0.05,0,0); (0.05,0.06,0); (0,0.06,0) and back to the origin, with a total of 50 turns.
Find the voltage and the current induced in the secondary. Also find both E and J in the
wire. The frequency is 60 Hz.
V 62.21
I cos(2 60t ) 31.11 cos(2 60t )
R 2
-Electric field and current density:
E 2500sin(2 60t ) u z (V / m)
Where z is directed between the plates, which
are separated by 50 mm of air. Find the
displacement current density and the total
current in the capacitor.
D 0 E E
J disp 0 (8.854 E 12) 2 60 2500 cos(2 60 t )
t t t
J disp (8.34 E 6) cos(2 60 t ) A / m 2
E dS E dS S
C S
S
E dl
L
E l l
1 1 1
U D E dVol E dVol E 2 S l
2
2 Vol 2 Vol 2
1
2 E2 S l
2 U S
C 2 2
2
V E l l
Field created by a infinite conductor or radius a.
2 A 0 J
1 A 1 A 2 A
r 2 2 0 J
r r r r z
1 A
r 0 J
r r r
1 A I
r 0 2 inside
r r r a
1 A
r 0 outside
r r r
Field created by a infinite conductor or radius a. Field inside the conductor
1 A I
r 0 2
r r r a
A I
r 0 2 r
r r a
A I r2
r 0 2 C1
r a 2
I r2
A 0 2 C1 ln r C2
a 4
r 0 A 0 C1 C2 0
2
I r
A 0 2
a 4
A I r
B 0 2
r a 2
Field created by a infinite conductor or radius a. Field outside the conductor
1 A A C1 r
r 0; A C1 ln
r r r r r R0
A C1 ln r C2 A 1
B C1
r R0 A 0 C2 C1 ln R0 r r
Flux continuity :
Binside (r a ) Boutside (r a )
I a 1
0 C
a2 2 1
a
I
C1 0
2
I r
A 0 ln
2 R0
I 1
B 0
2 r
Field created by a infinite conductor or radius a.
I r
B 0 2 inside
a 2
I 1
B 0 outside
2 r