MME 531

Heat and mass transfer lecture slide

Dr. Paul S. Nnamchi

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering,
University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria
Introduction

Reading :Iguchi and Ilegbusi

Chapter 4-7
Broadly divided into
 Heat transfer
 Diffusion and Mass transfer
Analogies of Heat transfer

Heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature

Analogies of mass transfer: diffusion of 02 and
c02 across the alveolar-capillary membrane
 All gas movement in the lung occurs as a result of passive diffusion,
i.e., gas moves from one region to another only when the partial
pressure of gas is greater in one region than another.
 The transfer of gas from the alveolus to the blood occurs by simple
diffusion.
 The rate of transfer depends on what?
Objectives of heat and mass transfer : An
Engineering Science
 ANALYSIS
 Calculate T(x,y,z,t) or q for a system undergoing a specified
process

 e.g., calculate daily heat loss from a house

 e.g., calculate operating temperature of a semiconductor chip with
heat sink/fan

 DESIGN
 Determine a configuration and operating conditions that yield
a specified T(x,y,z,t) or q

 e.g., determine insulation needed to meet a specified daily heat

loss from a house
 e.g., determine heat sink and/or fan needed to keep operating
temperature of a semiconductor chip below a specified value
 Summary: The Laws Governing Heat
Transfer
 Fundamental Laws
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of momentum
 Conservation of energy
 Heat Rate Laws
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction
 Newton’s law of convection
 Stefan-Boltzmann law for radiation
 Supplementary Laws
 Second law of thermodynamics
 Equations of state:
 ideal gas law
 tabulated thermodynamic properties
 caloric equation (definition of specific heat)
 Various Heat Transfer Phenomenon
 Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference.

 A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another.

 The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is the heat
transfer.

 The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the lower-
temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
 Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
 Conduction
 Convection
 radiation
 All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.
Mass transfer

 Mass transfer: The transfer of mass into or out of a substance

 The transfer of a chemical compound from one phase to another

 Examples:
 Evaporation: liquid gas

 Diffusion: high concentration low concentration

Various Mass Transfer Phenomenon

Evaporation: Diffusion:
Drying Salt through cheese curd
Concentration Smoke through meat
Baking Marinade or curing solution through meat
Frying Lye in tomato peeling
Boiling

Not mass transfer:

Moving a fluid from one place to another
Mass transfer syllables

 Diffusion Mass Transfer :

 Constitutive equations and definitions for composition of binary
mixtures; Fick's law of diffusion and binary diffusion coefficient;
conservation equation for species; steady and transient diffusion;
analogy to conduction heat transfer.
Heat transfer modes
Relevance of Heat Transfer To MME
 Electric Power Generation
 Alternate Energy Systems
 Combustion/Propulsion Systems
 Metallurgical Furnace Design
 Heating & Cooling Systems
 Domestic Appliances
 Materials/Food Processing
 Electronics Cooling & Packaging
 Cryogenics
 Environmental Processes
 Space Vehicle Systems
Conduction
 Heat transfer mode: Conduction
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions
between the particles.

In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of

the molecules during their random motion.

In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a

lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.

The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the

temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat transfer modes: conduction
 Rate equation (Fourier & Biot, 1820) is known as Fourier’s law; for 1-D
conduction,

dT dT
qx  kA or qx  k
dx dx
 where qx = heat rate in x-direction (W)
q”x = heat flux in x-direction (W/m2)
T = temperature (°C or K)
A = area normal to heat flow (m2)
In heat conduction
k = thermal conductivity of material analysis, A represents
(W/m-K); see Tables A.1-A.7 the area normal to the
direction of heat
transfer.
 Heat transfer modes: conduction

 Steady-state heat conduction through a plane wall:

Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a material

T1 k T2
to conduct heat.
q (T1>T2)
L
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the temperature
curve on a T-x diagram.

Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,

and the temperature gradient becomes negative when x
temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign
in the equation ensures that heat transfer in the positive x
direction is a positive quantity. Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
Fourier’s law of heat conduction
Heat transfer modes: conduction

Fourier’s law of heat

When x → 0 conduction

dT
qx  constant   k
dx
dT
if k  constant, then  constant
dx
dT T2  T1 T1  T2
  , qx  k
dx L L
 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat

transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material
is a measure of the ability of the
material to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal conductivity
indicates that the material is a good
heat conductor, and a low value
indicates that the material is a poor
heat conductor or insulator.

A simple experimental setup to

determine the thermal
conductivity of a material.
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivities of gases such as air vary by a
factor of 104 from those of pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat conduction

in different phases of a substance.
Thermal Conductivity

The range of thermal

conductivity of various
materials at room
temperature.
 Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per
unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how
fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
Thermal Conductivity

The variation of the thermal

conductivity of various
solids, liquids, and gases with
temperature.
Heat transfer mode: Convection
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent liquid
or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects
of conduction and fluid
motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the
greater the convection heat
transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by
conduction. convection.
Heat transfer mode: Convection

Forced convection: If the fluid

is forced to flow over the
surface by external means such
as a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free) convection: If
the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density differences
due to the variation of The cooling of a boiled egg by forced
temperature in the fluid. and natural convection.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise of
the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
Heat transfer mode: Convection

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter
whose value depends on all
the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
Heat Transfer Modes - Convection
 Rate equation (Newton, 1700) is known as Newton’s law
of “cooling”:

q  h(Ts  T ) or q  hAs (Ts  T ) Newton’s law of cooling

 where q” = heat flux normal to surface

q = heat rate from or to surface As
Ts = surface temperature
T = freestream fluid temperature or
the temperature of the fluid
sufficiently far from the surface.

As = surface area exposed to fluid

h = convection heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2-K)
Heat transfer mode: Radiation
 Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves
(or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the
atoms or molecules.
 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening medium.
 In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers
no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
 In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the
form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
 Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit,
absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
 However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for
solids.
 Heat transfer mode: Radiation
Rate equation is the Stefan-Boltzmann law which gives the energy flux due to thermal radiation
that is emitted from a surface; for a black body:
 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.
Eb  ATs4
For non-black bodies: Radiation emitted by real surfaces
E  ATs4
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely a surface approximates a
blackbody for which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at a specified temperature.
 Heat transfer mode: Radiation
Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by
the surface. 0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and
wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity .

Heat transfer mode: Radiation
When a surface is completely enclosed by a much larger
Net radiation heat transfer: The (or black) surface at temperature Tsurr separated by a gas
difference between the rates of (such as air) that does not intervene with radiation, the net
radiation emitted by the surface rate of radiation heat transfer between these
and the radiation absorbed. two surfaces is given by
The determination of the net rate
of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
 the properties of the surfaces
 their orientation relative to
each other
 the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
Radiation is usually significant
relative to conduction or natural
convection, but negligible relative
to forced convection.
Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the surfaces
surrounding it.
Heat transfer mode: Radiation
When radiation and convection occur simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined :

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation
Classes of Heat Transfer Problems

 Thermal Barriers
 insulation
 radiation shields
 Heat Transfer Enhancement (heat exchangers)
 boilers, evaporators, condensers, etc.
 solar collectors
 finned surfaces
 Temperature Control
 cooling of electronic components
 heat treating & quenching of metals
 minimizing thermal stress
 heating appliances (toaster, oven, etc.)