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50 µm
particles serve as void
nucleation sites.
1 µm = 1 X 10-6 m = 0.001 mm
Failure Prediction Methods
Static Loads
• Brittle Materials - FT:
– Maximum Normal Stress - Uniaxial stress
– Modified Mohr - Biaxial stress
• Ductile Materials:
– Goodman
– Gerber
– Soderberg
Maximum Normal Stress
•Uniaxial Static Loads on Brittle Material:
Static
Brittle Material
Load
–In tension:
ANALYSIS:
DESIGN:
Sut Sut
max K t d N
N max
–In compression:
ANALYSIS:
DESIGN:
Suc Sut
max K t d N
N max
Modified Mohr Method
• Biaxial Static Stress on Brittle Materials
2
45° Shear Diagonal Sut
2 1
Suc Sut
1 Stress concentrations
applied to stresses before
1, 2 making the circle
– In tension:
ANALYSIS:
DESIGN: S yt S yt
max d N
N
max
–In compression: ANALYSIS:
DESIGN:
S yc S yc
max d N
N
max
For most ductile materials, Syt = Syc
Maximum Shear Stress
• Biaxial Static Stress on Ductile Materials
avg, max
DESIGN:
Sy s Sy
max d
N 2N
ANALYSIS:
S ys
N
max
Ductile materials begin to yield when the maximum shear stress in a load-carrying
component exceeds that in a tensile-test specimen when yielding begins.
Somewhat conservative approach – use the Distortion Energy Method
for a more precise failure estimate
Distortion Energy
• Static Biaxial or Triaxial Stress on Ductile Materials
Shear
Diagonal 2 Best predictor of failure for
Sy ductile materials under static
loads or under completely
reversed normal, shear or
combined stresses.
Sy
Sy
1 ' 12 22 12
’ = von Mises stress
Failure: ’ > Sy
Sy Design: ’ d = Sy/N
N Sy/’
Distortion Energy ANALYSIS:
von Mises Stress
• Alternate Form
' 2x 2y x y 3 2xy
TORQUE:
DUCTILE BRITTLE
AXIAL
Brittle Ductile
Goodman Method
Good predictor of failure in ductile materials
experiencing fluctuating stress
a
Sn’ = actual endurance
strength Yield Line
a = alternating stress Sy
m = mean stress FATIGUE
Sn’
FAILURE REGION
Goodman Line
a m
NO FATIGUE 1
FAILURE REGION Sn S u
m
-Sy 0 Sy Su
Goodman Diagram
Sn’ = actual endurance strength
Safe Stress Line a a = alternating stress
m = mean stress
K t a m 1
Yield Line
Sn Su N Sy
FATIGUE
Sn’
FAILURE REGION
Goodman Line
Sn’/N a m
1
Sn S u
SAFE ZONE
m
-Sy 0 Su/N Sy Su
Safe Stress Line
Actual Endurance Strength
Sn’ = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
62 ksi
From Fig. 5-8.
Sn = 62 ksi
(machined)
Actual Sn Example Continued
Sn’ = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 62 ksi(1.0)(.8)(.81)(.94) = 37.8 ksi
Sn,Table 5-8
Wrought Steel
Actual Sn’
Axial Tension Estimate
Reliability, Table 5-1
42 mm DIA 30 mm
DIA
2
30 .3 20
MIN = 20 mean 25 .15 kN
2
- TIME
Example: Problem 5-53 continued.
• Find the mean stress:
25,150 N
m 35.6 MPa
(30 mm )2
4
• Find the alternating stress:
5,150 N
a 7.3 MPa
(30 mm )2
4
• Stress concentration from App. A15-1:
D 42 mm r 1.5 mm
1.4; .05 K t 2.3
d 30 mm d 30 mm
Example: Problem 5-53 continued.
• Sn data not available for titanium so we will guess!
Assume Sn = Su/4 for extra safety factor.
• TRY T2-65A, Su = 448 MPa, Sy = 379 MPa
K t a m 1
(Eqn 5-20)
Sn Su N
2.3(7.3 MPa) 35 .6 MPa 1
.297
.8(. 86 )( 448 MPa / 4) 448 MPa N
Size 1
Tension Reliability 50% N 3.36
.297
3.36 is good, need further information on Sn for titanium.
Example:
Find a suitable steel for N = 3 & 90% reliable.
3 mm Radius
50 mm DIA
30 mm
DIA
alt 212 N m
2
1272 848
MIN = 848 N-m mean 1060 N m
2
- TIME
T = 1060 ± 212 N-m
Example: continued.
• Stress concentration from App. A15-1:
D 50 mm r 3 mm
1.667; .1 K t 1.38
d 30 mm d 30 mm
Sn Size – 30 mm
Wrought steel 90% Reliability
Shear Stress
Example: continued.
K t a m 1
• Goodman: (Eqn. 5-28)
Ssn S su N
1.38( 40 MPa) 200 MPa 1
.7606
132 MPa 584 MPa N
1
N 1.31
.7606
No Good!!! We wanted N 3
Need a material with Su about 3 times bigger than this
guess or/and a better surface finish on the part.
Example: continued.
• Guess another material.
TRY: AISI 1340 OQT 700°F
Su = 1520 MPa, Sy = 1360 MPa, %E = 10%
Ductile
• Find the ultimate shear stress:
Sus = .75Su = .75(779 MPa) = 584 MPa
RBE
2/11/97
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
PIPE: TS4 x .237 WALL
MATERIAL: ASTM A242
Equivalent
DEAD WEIGHT:
Reversed,
Repeated SIGN + ARM + POST = 1000#
(Compression)
45°
Bending
RBE
2/11/97 Repeated one direction
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Stress Analysis:
Dead Weight:
P 1000 #
2
315 .5 psi (Static)
A 3.17 in
Bending:
M 500 # (60 in)
3
9345 .8 psi (Static)
Z 3.21 in
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Stress Analysis:
Torsion:
T 200 # (100 in)
3
3115 .3 psi (Cyclic)
ZP 2(3.21 in )
z z
= 3115.3 psi
x x Fully Reversed
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Mean Stress: Alternating Stress:
+
TIME
9345.8 Static
Stress
-315.5 m
-31.5 Repeated / 2
- MIN = -63.09 psi
8998.8 psi a (CW)
max
(CW) max (0,-3115.3)
1
(-31.5,-3115.3)
8998 .8 psi
max 4499 .4 psi max 3115 .34 psi
2
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
Determine Strength:
Try for N = 3 some uncertainty
Size Factor? OD = 4.50 in, Wall thickness = .237 in
ID = 4.50” – 2(.237”) = 4.026 in
Max. stress at OD. The stress declines to 95% at
95% of the OD = .95(4.50”) = 4.275 in. Therefore,
amount of steel at or above 95% stress is the same
as in 4.50” solid.
ASTM A242: Su = 70 ksi, Sy = 50 ksi, %E = 21%
t 3/4” Ductile
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
We must use Ssu and S’sn since this is a combined
stress situation. (Case I1, page 197)
S’sn = Sn(Cm)(Cst)(CR)(CS)
= 23 ksi(1.0)(.577)(.9)(.745) = 8.9 ksi
Hot Rolled
Surface Size – 4.50” dia
Wrought steel 90% Reliability
Combined or Shear Stress
Example: Combined Stress Fatigue Cont’d
“Safe” Line for Goodman Diagram:
a = S’sn / N = 8.9 ksi / 3 = 2.97 ksi
m = Ssu / N = 52.5 ksi / 3 = 17.5 ksi
K t a m 1
Ssn S su N
10
1.0(3115 .3 psi) 4499 .4 psi 1
Alternating Stress, a
S’sn .426
8900 psi 52500 psi N
1
N 2.29
.426
5 Su
3115.3 Ktalt
S’sn/N
0
0 5 10 15 Su/N 20
mean = 4499.4 Mean Stress, m
Design Factors, N
(a.k.a. Factor of Safety)
FOR DUCTILE
MATERIALS:
2. Yield Strength Ductile Material/ max Syt (for tensi on) d Syt / N (for tensi on)
(Basis for MCH T Uniaxial Static Normal max Syc (for compressio n) d Syc / N (for compressio n)
213) Stress
Note : Syt Syc for ductile/wr ought material
3. Maximum Shear Ductile Material/ Bi- max Sys where Sys Sy/2 d Sys / N where Sys Sy/2
Stress (Basis for axial Static Stress
MCH T 213)
2. Yield Strength Ductile Material/ max Syt (for tensi on) d Syt / N (for tensi on)
(Basis for MCH T Uniaxial Static Normal max Syc (for compressio n) d Syc / N (for compressio n)
Stress
213)
Failure TheoriesNotefor
: Syt FATIGUE Loading
Syc for ductile/wr ought material
3. Maximum Shear Ductile Material/ Bi- max Sys where Sys Sy/2 d Sys / N where Sys Sy/2
Stress (Basis for axial Static Stress
MCH T 213)
c. Ductile Material/
K t ( a ) max ( m ) max K t ( a ) max ( m ) max
Fluctuating Combined 1 whe re 1 whe re
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S sn' S su S sn' S su
S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su
Failure When Use? Failure When: Design Stress:
Theory:
1. Maximum Brittle Material/ Uniaxial max Kt Sut (for tensi on) d Sut / N (for tensi on)
Normal Stress Static Stress max Kt Suc (for compressio n) d Suc / N (for compressio n)
2. Yield Strength Ductile Material/ max Syt (for tensi on) d Syt / N (for tensi on)
(Basis for MCH T Uniaxial Static Normal max Syc (for compressio n) d Syc / N (for compressio n)
213) Stress
Note : Syt Syc for ductile/wr ought material
3. Maximum Shear Ductile Material/ Bi- max Sys where Sys Sy/2 d Sys / N where Sys Sy/2
Stress (Basis for axial Static Stress
MCH T 213)
c. Ductile Material/
K t ( a ) max ( m ) max K t ( a ) max ( m ) max
Fluctuating Combined 1 whe re 1 whe re
Stress (Fatigue Loading) S sn' S su S sn' S su
S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su S sn' 0.577 S n' and S su 0.75Su
General Comments:
1. Failure theory to use depends on material (ductile vs. brittle) and type of loading (static or
dynamic). Note, ductile if elongation > 5%.
2. Ductile material static loads – ok to neglect Kt (stress concentrations)
3. Brittle material static loads – must use Kt
4. Terminology:
• Su (or Sut) = ultimate strength in tension
• Suc = ultimate strength in compression
• Sy = yield strength in tension
• Sys = 0.5*Sy = yield strength in shear
• Sus = 0.75*Su = ultimate strength in shear
• Sn = endurance strength = 0.5*Su or get from Fig 5-8 or S-N curve
• S’n = estimated actual endurance strength = Sn(Cm) (Cst) (CR) (Cs)