THE GEOLOGICAL ASPECT: GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Abraham Ortelius (1596)

Similarities of fossil plants and animals on continents
that are presently separated by huge bodies of water
Continental Drift Theory – Alfred Wegener (1915)
PANGAEA - supercontinent
millions of years ago
- broken into several pieces
- these smaller pieces drifted
apart; some moved away
from each other, some
collided with one another
Mapping of the ocean floor reveals
the existence of mid-oceanic ridges

World War II and Post World

War II (1940’s-1960) – many
deep sea exploration and
surveys were conducted that
resulted in vast amount of
information about the ocean
floor

Mid-oceanic ridges (line of

volcanoes at the bottom of
the sea) was discovered
Sea floor spreading – H. Hesse & R. Dietz
1968 expedition of Glomar
Challenger show that rocks
near the mid-oceanic ridges
are young with age of rocks
becoming older away from
the ridges

The volcanic activity under

the sea causes magma from
beneath the earth’s crust to
rise to the surface forming a
very long ridge along the
middle of the oceans that
separate the large continents
a. jig-saw fit of the outlines a. Age of rocks are younger near
of the continents the mid-oceanic ridges and
becomes older away from the
b. coast of one continent ridge
similar to fossils found
in rocks near a coast
across the ocean

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY

(Alfred Wegener)(1912) (H. Hess and R. Dietz) (1961-62)

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

(W. Jason Morgan (1968))
Plate Tectonics Theory
The lithosphere is divided/ broken into
pieces known as tectonic plates that
move relative to each other
Philippine Tectonic Setting
Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
Plate Tectonics and
Volcanism
Plate Tectonics and Mineral Resources: Ophiolites
– Host to two strategic ferro-alloy mineral commodities namely
chromium and nickel
 EARTH’S LAYER

Mafics

Ultramafics
 OPHIOLITES
Ophiolite – assemblage of rocks that represent a section of the Earth's oceanic crust and the underlying upper
mantle that has been uplifted and exposed above sea level.

New oceanic crust and upper mantle (ophiolite sequence) are formed at spreading centers (MOR-setting) or
nascent subduction zone (Suprasubduction setting), drifts and finally “obducted” at convergent plate boundaries
 Plate Tectonics and Mineral Resources: Ophiolites
Typical Nickel Laterite Profile and Grade

PODIFORM CHROMITE – “LUMPY”

Detrital
EF / BF
– Pig
“Sandy” Iron

Chromite

Weathering - Soil

Podifrom Chromite
 WHY NICKEL LATERITE ORE
DEVELOP ONLY IN ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS?
AVERAGE ABUNDANCE OF SELECTED MINOR ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH'S CRUST
Element Earth's Crust Ultramafic Basalt Granodiorite Granite Shale Limestone
Gold (Au) 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005
Copper (Cu) 55 10 100 30 10 50 15
Manganese 950 1300 2200 1200 500 850 1100
Chromium (Cr) 100 2000 200 20 4 100 10
Nickel (Ni) 75 2000 150 20 0.5 0.7 12
Cobalt (Co) 25 150 50 10 1 20 4
Levinson(1974), Exploration Geochemistry
Ophiolites and
Podiform Chromite
Deposits
Ophiolites and Nickel
Ore Deposits
Plate Tectonics and Mineral Resources: Arc Magmatism at
Convergent Zone – Precious and Base Metal Hydrothermal
Deposits
 ARC MAGMATISM AND THE FORMATION OF
PRECIOUS AND BASE METAL HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS

Subduction of oceanic crust along convergent plate margins at depth induces partial melting of
crust and subsequent arc magmatism and volcanism. Hydrothermal fluids generated may
contain precious and base metal elements that could be economically concentrated along
favorable permeable horizons and fractures as it ascends upward.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR MAGMATIC ARC CU-AU-AG MINERALIZATION IN
PORPHYRY TO EPITHERMAL ENVIRONMENTS (CORBETT AND LEACH, 1998)
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION