Capstone Design -- Robotics

Motors and Control

Jizhong Xiao
Department of Electrical Engineering
City College of New York
jxiao@ccny.cuny.edu
 Robot Actuators
Stepper motors
DC motors
AC motors

Physics review:
Things seek lowest energy states.
Nature is lazy. • iron core vs. magnet N S
• magnetic fields tend to line up

N
Electric fields and magnetic S
fields are the same thing. + v - + v -
 Stepper Motor Basics
stator S

N S N S
rotor

Stator: made out of coils of Current switch in winding

Electromagnet wire called “winding” ==>Magnetic force
Rotor: magnet rotates on ==>hold the rotor in a position
bearings inside the stator
printers
• Direct control of rotor position (no sensing needed) computer drives
• May oscillate around a desired orientation (resonance at low speeds)
• Low resolution
 Increased Resolution

torque

N S

angle
N

Half stepping
 Increased Resolution

N S
More teeth on rotor or stator

Half stepping
 Increased Resolution

N S
More teeth on rotor or stator

Half stepping
 How to Control?
4 Lead Wire Configuration

Step Table
Red
Step Red Blue Yellow White A+

0 + - + - 4 lead
1 - + + - motor
A-
2 - + - + Blue

3 + - - +
4 + - + - Yellow White
B+ B-
Clockwise Facing Mounting End
Each step, like the second hand of a clock => tick, tick
Increase the frequency of the steps => continuous motion
 Motoring along...
• direct control of position
• precise positioning (The amount of
rotational movement per step depends
on the construction of the motor)

• Easy to Control

• under-damping leads to oscillation at low speeds

• torque is lower at high speeds than the primary alternative…

DC motors -- exposed !
 DC motor basics
permanent
magnets

N rotor S

stator

brush
+
V
-
commutator
attached to shaft
 DC motor basics
permanent
magnets

N rotor S N S

stator

+ +
V V
- -
 DC motor basics
permanent
magnets

N rotor S N S N N S S

stator

+ + +
V V V
- - -
 Position Sensors

 Optical Encoders
 Relative position
 Absolute position
 Other Sensors
 Resolver
 Potentiometer
 Optical Encoders
• Relative position
- direction
light sensor
- resolution

decode
light emitter circuitry

grating
 Optical Encoders
mask/diffuser
• Relative position
light sensor

decode
light emitter circuitry

grating

A diffuser tends to
smooth these signals

Ideal Real
 Optical Encoders
• Relative position
- direction
light sensor
- resolution

decode
light emitter circuitry

grating
 Optical Encoders
• Relative position
- direction
light sensor
- resolution

decode
light emitter circuitry

grating

A
A lags B

B
B
 Optical Encoders
• Relative position
- direction
light sensor
- resolution

decode
light emitter circuitry

grating
Phase lag between A and B is 90 degree

B A leads B
 Optical Encoders
• Detecting absolute position

something simpler ?
 Optical Encoders
• Detecting absolute position

wires ?
 Gray Code

# Binary
0 0 000

1 1 001

2 10 011

3 11 010

4 100 110

5 101 111

110 101
6
111 100
7
1000
8
1001
9
among others...
 Other Sensors
• Resolver
= driving a
stepper motor

• Potentiometer
= varying
resistance
 Control
Control: getting motors to do what you want them to
What you want to control = what you can control
For DC speed
motors:
voltage
windings’
resistance

R
N
w
V V e back
N S emf

e is a voltage generated by the rotor

windings cutting the magnetic field
emf: electromagnetic force
 Controlling speed with voltage

• The back emf depends only on the motor speed. e = ke w

• The motor’s torque depends only on the current, I. t = kt I

V e

DC motor model
 Controlling speed with voltage

• The back emf depends only on the motor speed. e = ke w

• The motor’s torque depends only on the current, I. t = kt I
Istall = V/R
current when motor
• Consider this circuit’s V: V = IR + e
is stalled
speed = 0 How is V related to w ?
torque = max

tR
V= + ke w
R kt
V e
- or -

V
w=- R t+
kt ke ke
DC motor model Speed is proportional to voltage.
 speed vs. torque at a fixed voltage
speed w

V no torque at max speed

ke

max torque when stalled

ktV
torque t
R
 speed vs. torque at a fixed voltage
speed w Linear mechanical power Pm = F  v
Rotational version of Pm = t  w
V no torque at max speed

ke

ktV stall torque

torque t
R
 speed vs. torque at a fixed voltage
speed w Linear mechanical power Pm = F  v
Rotational version of Pm = t  w
V
ke
max speed
power output

speed vs.
torque

ktV
torque t stall torque
R
 speed vs. torque
speed w

V
ke
max speed gasoline engine
power output

speed vs.
torque

ktV
torque t stall torque
R
 Motor specs

Electrical Specifications (@22°C)

For motor type 1624 003S 006S 012S 024
-------------------------- -------- -------- -------- --------- -------
nominal supply voltage (Volts) 3 6 12 24
armature resistance (Ohms) 1.6 8.6 24 75
maximum power output (Watts) 1.41 1.05 1.50 1.92
maximum efficiency
no-load speed
(%)
(rpm)
76
12,000
72
10,600
74
13,000
74
14,400 kt
no-load current (mA) 30 16 10 6
ke friction torque
stall torque
(oz-in)
(oz-in)
.010
.613
.011
.510
.013
.600
.013
.694
velocity constant (rpm/v) 4065 1808 1105 611
back EMF constant (mV/rpm) .246 .553 .905 1.635
torque constant (oz-in/A) .333 .748 1.223 2.212
armature inductance (mH) .085 .200 .750 3.00
 Back to control
Basic input / output relationship: We can control the
voltage applied V.

tR We want a particular
V= + ke w motor speed w .
kt

How to change the voltage?

V is usually controlled via PWM -- “pulse width modulation”

 PWM
 PWM -- “pulse width modulation

 Duty cycle:
 The ratio of the “On time” and the “Off time” in one cycle
 Determines the fractional amount of full power delivered to the
motor
 Open-loop vs. Close-loop Control
Open-loop Control:
V(t)
desired speed w Controller Motor w
solving for V(t)
actual speed

If desired speed wd  actual speed wa, So what?

Closed-loop Control: using feedback

wd - wa
wa
desired wd V
compute V from
- the current error
Motor

PID controller

actual speed wa
 PID Controller
PID control: Proportional / Integral / Derivative control

V = Kp (wd - w) + Ki ∫ (wd - w) dt + Kd ddte

V = Kp • ( e + Ki ∫ e + Kd ddte )

Error signal e
wd - wa

desired wd V actual w
compute V using
- PID feedback
Motor

actual speed w
 Evaluating the response

overshoot steady-state error

ss error -- difference from the

settling time system’s desired value
overshoot -- % of final value
exceeded at first oscillation
rise time -- time to span from
10% to 90% of the final value
settling time -- time to reach
within 2% of the final value

rise time

How can we eliminate the steady-state error?

Control Performance, P-type

Kp = 20 Kp = 50

Kp = 200 Kp = 500
Steady-state Errors, P-type

Kp = 50 Kp = 200
 Control Performance, PI - type
Kp = 100

Ki = 50 Ki = 200
You’ve been integrated...
Kp = 100

instability &
oscillation
 Control Performance, PID-type
Kp = 100
Kd = 2 Kd = 5 Ki = 200

Kd = 10 Kd = 20
PID final control
 PID Tuning
How to get the PID parameter values ?
(1) If the system has a known mathematical model (i.e., the
transfer function), analytical methods can be used (e.g., root-
locus method) to meet the transient and steady-state specs.
(2) When the system dynamics are not precisely known, we
must resort to experimental approaches.
Ziegler-Nichols Rules for Tuning PID Controller:
Using only Proportional control, turn up the gain until the system
oscillates w/o dying down, i.e., is marginally stable. Assume that K
and P are the resulting gain and oscillation period, respectively.
Then, use for P control for PI control for PID control
Kp = 0.5 K Kp = 0.45 K Kp = 0.6 K Ziegler-Nichols Tuning
for second or higher
Ki = 1.2 / P Ki = 2.0 / P order systems
Kd = P / 8.0
 Implementing PID
Use discrete approximations to the I and D terms:

• Proportional term: ei = wdesired - wactual at time i

i=now

• Integral term: S e
i=0 i

• Derivative term: ei - 2ei-1 + ei-2

How could this discretization affect the performance of a system?

Sampling time is critical!!
 What is proper sampling
 Proper sampling:
 Can reconstruct the analog signal
from the samples
 Aliasing:
 The higher frequency component
that appears to be a lower one is
called an alias for the lower Aliasing
frequency
 Aliasing: the frequency of the
sampled data is different from the
frequency of the continuous signal

b. 0.09 of sampling rate might represent, a 90 cycle/second sine wave being sampled at 1000
samples/second; in another word, there are 11.1 samples taken over each complete cycle of the sinusoid
d. Aliasing occurs when the frequency of the analog sine wave is greater than the Nyquist frequency (one-
half of the sampling rate); in other word, the sampling frequency is not fast enough. Aliasing
misrepresents the information, so the original signal cannot be reconstructed properly from the samples.
 Shannon’s Sampling Theorem
 An analog signal x(t) is completely specified by the samples
if x(t) is bandlimited to wBL  ws / 2 , where ws  2 / Ts
 In other word, a continuous signal can be properly sampled,
only if it does not contain frequency components above one-
half of the sampling rate.

 Definitions:
 Given a signal bandlimited to f BL , must sample at greater than 2 f BL
to preserve information. The value 2 f BL is called Nyquist rate (of
sampling for a given f BL )
 Given sampling rate f s , the highest frequency in the signal must be
less than f s / 2 if samples are to preserve all the information. The
value f NYQ  f s / 2 is called the Nyquist frequency (associated with a
fixed sample frequency).
 Rule of Thumb
 For a closed-loop control system, a typical
choice for the sampling interval T based on
rise time is 1/5 th or 1/10 th of the rise time.
(i.e., 5 to 10 samples for rise time)
 Motor Drive
 Micro-controller
 Logic Level

 Motor Drive Components

 Power transistors
 H-Bridge Drivers
 etc ...
 Useful Links
 6.270 MIT’s Autonomous Robot Design Competition,
http://web.mit.edu/6.270/www/home.html
 Acroname Inc. for Easy robotics, sensors, kits, etc,
http://www.acroname.com/
 Interactive C User’s Guide, etc., http://www.newtonlabs.com/ic/
 Handy board, http://www.handyboard.com/
 Pitsco Lego Dacta, lego components, http://www.pitsco-
legodacta.com/intro.htm
 The Electronic Goldmine: cheep motors, electronics components,
http://www.goldmine-elec.com
 Applied Motion Products: Step/DC motors and drives,
http://www.applied-motion.com
 Jameco Electronics: http://www.jameco.com
 Assignment
 Refresh you memory
 Control Theory
 (Text book: K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, Prentice Hall)

 Electronics (OP-amp, motor drive)

 Laboratory
 Specs of Motors
 Motor Drive Circuit
 Looking for Drive Components