Presented by :

Chinmoy Borah
B.sc 6th Semester
Department of geology
 Contents
 Introduction
 Classification-
a) Based on temperature of formation
b) Based on the mode of formation
 Conclusion
 Reference
Ore :
A naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable
mineral can be profitably extracted. Example- Bauxite, Chromite, Magnetite
etc.

Hydrothermal process :
The process is responsible for formation of epigenetic mineral deposits
i.e. those formed later than the rocks that enclose them. The fluid resulting as
an end product of magmatic differentiation, constitutes hydrothermal solution
which carries metals originally present in the magma to the site of deposition.
 Hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma
crystallization and may contain large amount of dissolved metals.
Its temperature ranges from 5000 to 500 Celsius.
 The hydrothermal solution move through cracks and openings
present in the rocks and deposit their dissolved minerals there.
 Minerals which have lowest temperatures of crystallization, such as
stibnite and cinnabar may migrate very far away while those having
higher temperatures of crystallization, such as chalcopyrite, may
precipitate close to the parent igneous body.
Prerequisites

 The prerequisites for hydrothermal deposits are

The availability of enough metal content in the hydrothermal solution.

Presence of solution capable of dissolving and transporting mineral

matter.

Available openings in the rocks permitting movement of hydrothermal

solution from the source to the site of deposition.

Chemical reaction causing deposition of ore.

Classification :
There are mainly two types of classification base on :

Based on temperature of formation

Based on the mode of formation
Based on temperature of formation-
Lindgren (1911) gave a popular genetic classification of mineral deposit s as given below-

Hypothermal deposit- These deposits are formed at great depth, near the intrusive and within the
temperature range of 3000 to 5000C. Metals which may be extracted from hypothermal deposits
consist of copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), tin (Sn), tungsten (W), gold (Au), and lead (Pb).

Mesothermal deposits - They are formed at a depth of 1500-4000 meters below the surface and
within the temperature range of 2000-3000C. Metals which are mined consist of copper (Cu), zinc
(Zn), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and lead (Pb).

Epithermal deposits - These are formed at shallow depth(further away from the surface). The
temperature range is from 500 to 2000 C. Metals which are mined from epithermal deposits include
silver (Ag), gold (Au), and mercury (Hg).

Telethermal deposits – The term was introduced by Graton(1933) to deposits formed under low
temperature and pressure, far away from the parent igneous source.
Xenothermal deposits - The term was introduced by Buddington (1935) to deposits formed at high
temperature and shallow depths.
BASED ON THE MODE OF
FORMATION
Cavity-filling deposits
Replacement deposits
 Cavity filling :

 The process of cavity filling consists in

deposition of minerals in rock opening from
aqueous solution.
 The walls of the cavity are lined first by the
mineral to be deposited.
 The minerals usually grow inward with
development of crystal faces pointed towards
the supplying solution in the form of comb
structure.
 Successive crusts of different minerals may
precipitated upon the first one until filling is
complete, and finally give rise to Crustification.
 Crustification may be symmetrical with similar
crusts on either side or asymmetrical with
unlike bands on either side.
 Fissure vein deposit

It is a tabular type of deposit, involving formation of fissure itself by

stresses operating within earth crust, and ore forming processes.
Fissure veins may be massive or crustified.
They may be simple, composite, linked, sheeted, dilated and
chambered.
These veins have generally steep dip.
Sometimes country rock may be enclosed within the deposit and are
termed as ‘Horse’.
Indian example- Kolar Gold mine, Karnataka.
Varieties of Fissure vein

 Chambered Vein

Here the walls are irregular and

brecciated, particularly the hanging
wall, owing to formation under light
load near the surface.
 Sheeted Zone

 A group of closely spaced, distinct,

parallel fractures is a sheeted zone.
Each fracture is filled with mineral
matter and is separated by bands
of barren rock, and the whole is
mined as a single lode.
 The width may be several tens of
feet.
Linked Vein

A group of closely spaced, distinct, parallel fractures that are linked by

cross veinlets.
Dilation or Lenticular veins

o Dilation or lenticular veins are fat

lenses in schists.
o They are thought to be caused by the
bulging or dilation of schistose rocks
due to pressure transmitted by the
mineralizing solutions.
o Some are due to the pulling apart,
during metamorphism, of a pre-
existing vein.
o In width they range from a few
inches to several tens of feet.
 Shear zone deposits :

 Shear zones are important loci of mineral deposits

that result from aligned shearing, with or without
faulting.
 Generally, however, in shear zones the individual
openings are not parallel but are discontinuous and
interlacing and afford excellent channel ways for
replacing solutions.
 These deposits are generally irregular in outline and
there width may range from 1 to 100 feet or more,
and the length may be as much as a few thousand
feet.
 In general, however, shear zones favor replacement
rather than cavity filling.
 Example – Copper ore of Singhbhum Shear Zone.
Stockwork

These deposits are characterized by a large

mass of rock impregnated by dense
interlacing network of variously oriented
irregular ore-bearing veins and grouped
vein-lets. The veinlets show crustification,
comb structure and druses, and represent
open space fillings.
It is formed by cracking upon cooling of
the upper and marginal parts of intrusive
igneous rocks, along which mineralization
may occur conveniently leading to the
development of Stockwork.
Example-platinum-palladium-chromite
mines at Boula-Nausali, India.
Saddle reef

It results when alternating competent and

incompetent rocks such Quartzite and Slate are
closely folded. This give rise to openings in the
crest part of the arch, which is latter filled with
ore minerals. When filled by ore minerals they
resemble the cross section of a saddle leading the
formation of saddle reef deposit.
The ore emplacement has been chiefly by cavity
filling but considerable replacement has also
been taken place.
Example –Quartz reefs of Hutti Gold deposit,
Karnataka
Saddle reef is well shown in the gold districts of Nova Scotia,
where the anticlines are unusually regular and well formed.
Ladder veins

Ladder veins are short, rather regularly spaced,

roughly parallel fractures that traverse dikes from
wall to wall. Their width is restricted to the width of
the dike, but they may extend great distances along
it. Ladder veins are not as numerous or important as
fissure veins.
The fractures that contain ladder veins are
considered to be cooling contraction joints.
Example – Gold quartz ladder veins of the Morning
Star, Australia
Cavity filling deposits (Indian examples) :
Fissure vein :
Magnesite deposits of Salal area, Jammu.

Shear zone deposit :

Singhbhum shear zone deposit.

Stockwork :
In Zawar area, Rajasthan veins and stringers of galena and sphalerite traverse dolomite
mass and form lenticular bodies.
Stockworks of asbestos occur in the Archean terrain of Barabana area, Sighbhum, Bihar.

Saddle reef :
The quartz reefs of Hutti gold deposit, Karnataka and those of Wynad gold deposit, Tamil
Nadu.

Ladder vein :
Magnesite deposits of Mysore, Karnataka
Asbestos deposit of Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh.
Replacement Deposits

It is a process of simultaneous solution and deposition whereby one mineral replaces
another.

Replacement occurs when a mineralizing solution encounters minerals unstable in its

presence. The original mineral is dissolved and almost simultaneously exchanged for
another.

It is generally controlled by the chemical and physical character of the host rock, by
structural features, by intrusives, or by a combination of them.

It is most effective at elevated temperatures, since heat accelerates reaction. However
replacement may also occur at normal temperature such as replacement of limestone by
oxides of iron or manganese to form and manganese deposits by cold meteoric water.
The replacement deposits may be-
 Massive
 Replacement lodes and
 Disseminated

 Massive deposits :
The massive deposits are of irregular form and of
varied size.
The replacement may start from a fissure with
bold face of massive ore against the country rock.
It may thicken and thin with wavy outline and
ramify irregularly in all directions.
The host rock is almost completely replaced and
the ore shows abrupt ending against the country
rock.
The ore may retain original texture and structure
of the rock it replaces.
Replacement lodes
 The replacement lodes may be massive or
high grade ore flanked by a fringe of
disseminated ore.
 Here, replacement may start from a fissure
with bold front or some prominent centres
followed by replacement at many small
centres.
 Like fissure veins, they occur replacing walls
of fissures or thin beds.
 The outline of the ore body may be wavy,
irregular and gradational with the country
rock.
Example- Gold veins of Kirkland Lake,
Ontario.
Disseminated deposits
 The disseminated deposits represent multiple
centers of replacement and consist of altered host
rock and disseminated ore grains e.g. porphyry
copper deposits.
 The mineralizing solution spreads in the host rock
and gives rise to scattered specks, grains, blebs and
small veinlets of ore scattered within the host rock.
 The boundaries between the ore and the host rock
are vague and gradational.
 This type of deposit being of low grade and huge,
requires large scale mining.
Example- Utah Copper mine at Bingham,
Utah
conclusion

Thus we can conclude that hydrothermal mineral deposits are those in which hot water
serves as a concentrating, transporting, and depositing agent.

They are the most numerous of all classes of deposit. Formation of hydrothermal ore
deposits is linked not only to the generation of significant volumes of fluid in the
Earth’s crust, but also to its ability to circulate through rock and be focused into
structural conduits (shear zones, faults, breccias, etc.) created during deformation.

Economically viable hydrothermal ore deposits occur when a large volume of fluid with
a high metal-carrying capacity is focused into a geological location that is both
localized and accessible, and where efficient precipitation mechanisms can be sustained
for a substantial period of time.
 Reference
 Economic mineral deposits by M.L. Jensen and Alan
M. Bateman.
 Economic geology by Umeshwar Prasad.
 Principles Of Engineering Geology – Bangar K.M.
 http://www.geologyin.com/2014/11/veins-and-
hydrothermal-deposits.html