CHAPTER 4B: NUCLEAR DIVISIONS

OUTLINES
Continuity of Life
Chromosomes
Cell Cycle
Mitosis
Importance of Mitosis
Cancer
Meiosis
Sources of Genetic Variation
 Continuity of Life
 All living organisms grow and reproduce.
 Since all living organisms are made of cells, this mean that cells
must be able to grow and reproduce
 Cells reproduce by dividing and passing on copies of their genes
to ‘daughter’ cells.
 Nucleus always divides before a cell divides.
 Each daughter cells therefore contains its own nucleus
 This is important because nucleus controls the cell’s activities.
 It does so through the genetic material, DNA.
 Chromosomes
 The most important structures in the cell during
nuclear divisions.
 Responsible for the transmission of heredity
information from one generation to the next
because it contains DNA (the molecule of inheritance)
 Between divisions of the nucleus (interphase),
each chromosome contains one (double helix) DNA molecules.
 The individual chromosome present in a very loosely coiled, long, thin thread
which is still not visible. This material is referred to as chromatin
 A duplicate/copy must be made before nucleus divides so that it contains two
identical DNA molecules
 Each copy is contained in a chromatid, and the two
chromatids are held together at a point called centromere
 Function of centromere
 Site of attachment of spindle fibers via the kinetochore
(protein structure in centromere)
 Hold two sister chromatids together.
Chromosomes
 Chromosomes
 Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes.
 Humans have 46 chromosomes (or 23 pairs of chromosomes)
 Male – 22 pairs of chromosomes (autosomes) + XY (sex
chromosomes)
 Female – 22 pairs of chromosomes (autosomes) + XX (sex
chromosomes)
 Homologous chromosomes – the two chromosomes composing a
pair have the same length, centromere position.
 In human, 23 chromosomes come from the male parent
(paternal chromosomes) and 23 chromosomes come from
female parent (maternal chromosomes)
 Therefore, there are 23 homologous pair of chromosomes
Karyotypes
 Chromosomes
 Diploid – Cells contain two sets of chromosomes (2n)
 Haploid – Cells contain one set of chromosomes (n)
 In human, normal body cells are diploid (2n), with 46
chromosomes, and gametes are haploid (n), with 23
chromosomes.

TWO TYPES OF NUCLEAR DIVISION

Growth – Original single cell (zygote) which divides repeatedly to
form the cells of the adult organism. This is achieved by nuclear
division known as MITOSIS.
Sexual reproduction – Haploid gametes is formed by reduction
division which is known as MEIOSIS. Fusion of two haploid
gametes then restored the diploid condition in zygote upon
fertilisation.
 Cell Cycle
 The cell cycle is the sequence of events which occurs between
one cell division and the next.
 It has three main stages:
1. Interphase – This is a period of synthesis and growth. The
cell produces many materials required for its own growth
and for carrying out all its functions. DNA replication occurs
during interphase.
2. Mitosis – This is the process of nuclear division and is
described later.
3. Cell division – This is the process of division of the
cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
 Cell Cycle
PHASE EVENTS WITHIN CELL
Intensive cellular synthesis, including new cell organelles. Cell
G1 growth occur.
DNA replication occurs. Each chromosome containing two
S chromatids is formed. At this stage the cell is 4n
Intensive cellular synthesis. Mito and chloroplast divide. Mitotic
G2 spindle begin to form
M Nuclear division occurs in four phases.
Equal distribution of organelles and cytoplasm into each daughter
C cell
 Mitosis
MITOSIS – is the nuclear division that produces two genetically
identical daughter cells , each containing the same number of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus.
 Mitosis is divided into 4 phases namely,
I. Prophase
II. Metaphase
III. Anaphase
IV. Telophase
 Mitosis
PROPHASE – The longest phase of division.
Early prophase
 Chromatins shorten and thicken
by coiling.
 They are thick enough to become
visible when stained.
Late prophase
 Each chromosome is seen to consist of two identical chromatids held
together by centromere.
 Centrioles moving to opposite ends (poles) of nucleus.
 Short microtubules is seen radiating from centrioles (called asters)
 The nucleoli disappear.
 The nuclear envelope disappear.
 At the end of prophase, a spindle fibres is formed.
 Mitosis
METAPHASE
 Chromosomes line up around
the equator of the spindle,
attached by their centromeres
to the ‘spindle fibres’,
(microtubules).

ANAPHASE – Very rapid stage.

 Chromatids move to opposite
poles, centromeres first, pulled
by the microtubules.
 Mitosis
TELOPHASE
 The chromatids reach the poles of the spindle, uncoil and
lengthen to form chromatin again (become invisible again)
 The spindle fibres disintegrate.
 Nuclear envelope re-form around the chromosomes at each
poles.
 The nucleoli re-appear.
 Telophase may lead straight
into cytokinesis (cell division)
 Importance of Mitosis
Growth
 Allow growth of muticellular organism from
unicellular zygotes

Replacement of cells and repair of tissues

 Replacement of dying cells (eg skins)
 Regeneration of body part (eg starfish regenerate new arms)

Asexual reproduction
 Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction,
the production of new individuals by a
single parent organism.
 The hydra reproduces asexually by budding
 Cancer
 Result of uncontrolled mitosis.
 Cancerous cells divide repeatedly, out of control, and a tumour
develops, which is an irregular mass of cells.
 Divides into two types
i. Benign tumour, which do not spread from their site of
origin.
ii. Malignant (cancerous) tumour, which are far more
dangerous since they spread throughout the body, invade
other tissues and eventually destroy them.
 MEIOSIS
 Reduction division of the nucleus – ie chromosome number is
halved from 2n->n
 Involves 2 nuclear divisions
1st meiotic division (Meiosis I)
2nd meiotic division (Meiosis II)
 Takes place in reproduction organs (germ cells)
 Basic characteristic of meiosis:
1 DNA replication at interphase
Meiosis I – homologous chromosomes separate
Meiosis II – sister chromatids separate
 Results in 4 daughter nuclei with half the number of
chromosomes
 Telophase I and
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I
Cytokinesis

Centrosome
(with centriole pair) Sister chromatids
remain attached
Centromere
Sister Chiasmata (with kinetochore)
chromatids
Spindle
Metaphase
plate

Homologous Homologous Cleavage

chromosomes chromosomes furrow
separate
Fragments Microtubule
of nuclear attached to
envelope kinetochore
 Telophase II and
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II
Cytokinesis

Sister chromatids Haploid daughter cells

separate forming
Prophase I
 Chromosomes shorten.
 Each chromosome is seen to be composed of two chromatids.
 Synapsis – homologous chromosome pair up (called bivalent/tetrad)
 Crossing-over btw homologous non-sister chromatids at chiasma
(chiasmata pl)
 Centrioles move to opposite poles.
 Nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappear.
 Spindle fibres form.

Metaphase I
 Bivalents arranged around the equator.
 Spindle fibres attached to centromeres at kinetochores (a protein
structure on centromere)
Anaphase I
 Separation of homologous chromosomes due to pull by the spindle
fibres. Towards opposite poles.

Telophase I
 Nuclear envelope re-forms
 Cytokinesis (cell division) occurs, producing 2 daughter cells.

Prophase II
 Nucleoli and nuclear envelope disperse.
 Chromatins shorten and thicken.
 Centrioles move to opp poles
 Spindle fibres form.

Metaphase II
 Chromosome line up around the equator.
Anaphase II
 Centromeres divide.
 Spindle fibres pull the chromatids to opposite poles, centromere
first.

Telophase II
 Chromosome lengthen.
 Spindle fibres disappear.
 Nuclear envelope and nucleoli re-form
 Cytokinesis produces 4 daughter cells.
 Importance of Meiosis
 To perform reduction division
 Chromosome number of species remain constant
 Meiosis results in the production of haploid gametes (n)
The fusion of male and female gametes (n) restores diploid
number of chromosomes to form zygote(2n)
 Crossing over of homologous chromosomes produces genetic
variation
 Source of Genetic Variation
 CROSSING OVER
Exchange of genes (portion of chromatid breaks off and
rejoin at chiasmata (pl) results in new combinations along
the chromatids (Prophase I)
 SEPARATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
Separates the alleles so that each gamete carries only 1
allele for a particular gene (Anaphase I)
 Source of Genetic Variation
 INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OF HOMOLOGOUS
CHROMOSOMES during Metaphase I and that of SISTER
CHROMATIDS during Metaphase II
Independent assortment is due to random orientation of
the each pair of homologous chromosome and sister
chromatids during metaphases.
 Source of Genetic Variation
 RANDOM FUSION OF GAMETES
Fusion of male and female gametes is completely random.