CONTENTS

• CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES

• IRON & STEEL
• HEAT TREATMENT
• NON-FERROUS METALS & ALLOYS
• MANUFACTURING PROCESS
• NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
• STANDARDS USED IN FFC
CLASSIFICATION & PROPERTIES
MATERIAL

METALS

FERROUS NON FERROUS

- NON-METALS

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

CAST IRON ZINC, WOOD,
CARBON LEAD GASES,
STEEL ALUMINUM PLASTICS,
STAINLESS- COPPER PAPERS
STEEL ETC. ETC.
 METALS
METALS MAIN ENGINEERING MATERIALS
AND HAVING FOLLOWING COMMON
QUALITIES:

•GOOD LUSTER
•HIGH CONDUCTIVITY
•HIGH MELTING POINT
•GOOD HARDNESS
•DUCTILITY
•EXAMPLES ARE CARBON STEEL, STAINLESS
STEEL, ALUMINUM, COPPER ETC.
 NOM-METALS
NON-METALS ARE ALL MATERIALS THAT ARE
NOT METAL AND HAVING FOLLOWING
COMMON QUALITIES:
•LOW LUSTER
•BAD CONDUCTOR
•LOW MELTING POINT
•LOW DUCTILITY
•ETC
PLASTER, RUBBER, PAPER, CHLORINE, WOOD
CARBON, ETC
 FERROUS METALS
METALS HAVING IRON AS THEIR BASIC
ELEMENT ARE CALLED FERROUS METALS
EXAMPLES ARE CARBON STEEL, STAINLESS
STEEL, CAST IRON

NON-FERROUS METALS
METALS NOT BASED ON IRON I.E. HAVING
LITTLE OR NO IRON ARE CALLED NON-
FERROUS METALS
EXAMPLES ARE ZINC, LEAD, CHROMIUM,
BRASS, BRONZE, GUN METAL ETC.
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
ELASTICITY
THE PROPERTY OF MATERIAL TO RETURN TO
ITS ORIGINAL SHAPE AFTER THE REMOVAL
OF LOAD IS CALLED ITS ELASTICITY.
THIS PROPERTIES HAS A CERTAIN LIMIT
WHICH IS CALLED ELASTIC LIMIT

PLASTICITY
THE PROPERTY OF MATERIAL DUE TO
WHICH IT IS PERMANENTLY DEFORMED ON
APPLICATION OF (WITHOUT RUPTURE).
BRITTLENESS
THE PROPERTY OF MATERIAL TO EASILY
BREAKUP INTO PIECES WITHOUT
DEFORMATION IS CALLED BRITTLENESS (CI)
DUCTILITY
ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO BE DRAWN INTO
WIRES E.G. MILD STEEL, COPPER
MALLEABILITY
ABILITY OF A MATERIAL TO BE ROLLED OR
HAMMERED INTO THIN SHEETS IS CALLED
MALLEABILITY (LEAD, GOLD)
CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
STEELS

ALLOY STEEL PLAIN CARBON STEEL

LOW MEDIUM HIGH

CARBON CARBON CARBON
STEELS STEELS STEELS

TOOL STEEL HEAT

& HIGH STAINLESS OTHER
RESISTANCE
SPEED STEEL STEELS STEELS
STEELS
 IRON & STEEL
IRON ORES
THREE MOST IMPORTANT ARE :
•SIDERITE %AGE IRON 40%
•HEMATITE %AGE IRON 60%
•MAGNETITE %AGE IRON 70%

TYPES OF IRON
THREE MOST COMMONLY USED IRON TYPES:
1. PIG IRON
2. CAST IRON
3. WROUGHT IRON
 STEEL
STEEL IS AN IRON-CARBON ALLOY WITH
CARBON CONTENTS LIMITING UPTO 1.5%
WHEN CARBON CONTENT INCREASES
BEYOND A CERTAIN LIMIT, IT BECOMES CAST
IRON (2 – 4.5%)
IF ONLY STEEL AND CARBON ARE ALLOYING
ELEMENTS, THEN IT IS CALLED PLAIN
CARBON STEEL
IF OTHER ELEMENTS ARE ALSO ALLOYED
SUCH AS MANGANESE, CHROMIUM, NICKEL
ETC. THEN IT IS CALLED ALLOY STEEL
 EFFECTS OF CARBON STEEL
CARBON HAS SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON THE PROPERTIES
OF FERROUS MATERIALS

IRON + NO CARBON ---- WROUGHT STEEL

IRON + CARBON UPTO1.5% ---- CARBON STEELS

IRON + NO CARBON ---- CAST IRON

INCREASE IN CARBON CONTENT INCREASES ITS

HARDNESS AND DUCTILITY ULTIMATELY DECREASES
 PLAIN CARBON STEEL
IT IS ALLOY OF CARBON AND IRON ONLY.
LOW CARBON STEEL (CARBON = 0.15 – 0.3)
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL (CARBON = 0.3 – 0.8)
HIGH CARBON STEEL (CARBON = 0.8 – 1.5)

ALLOYING ELEMENTS
ELEMENTS ADDED TO MATERIALS TO IMPROVE
THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ARE CALLED
ALLOYING ELEMENTS
SUCH AS CHROMIUM, MANGANESE,
MOLYBDENUM, NICKEL, TITANIUM ETC.
 ALLOY STEELS
ALLOY STEELS ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES:

• LOW ALLOY STEELS (ALLOYING ELEMENT <5%)

• HIGH ALLOY STEELS (ALLOYING ELEMENT >5%)

STAINLESS STEELS
ALLOY STEELS HAVING CHROMIUM 12-30% AND NICKEL
0-22% ARE CALLED STAINLESS STEELS
THEY ARE GOOD CORROSION AND HEAT RESISTANCE
AND HAVE GOOD TENSILE STRENGTH. THEY ARE
CLASSIFIED INTO FURTHER THREE CATEGORIES

1. AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS 16-26% Cr/3.5-22% Ni

2. FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS 15-30% Cr/3.5-22% Ni 3.
MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS 12-20% Cr/3.5-22% Ni
 NOM-FERROUS METALS
ALUMINUM
WHITE SILVER COLOR AND LIGHT-WEIGHT, EASY TO
FABRICATE. USED FOR AIRCRAFTS, ETC
COPPER
REDDISH BROWN, GOOD CONDUCTOR. USED FOR
WIRES, EXCHANGER TUBES ETC
NICKEL
SILVER WHITE, GOOD CONDUCTOR. USED FOR
NICKEL PLATING & AS ALLOYING ELEMENT
ZINC
SILVER WHITE, CORROSION RESISTOR, MALLEABLE.
USED IN GALVANIZING OF METALS
LEAD
BLUISH GREY COLOR, VERY SOFT AND MALLEABLE.
USED FOR SOLDERING AND STORAGE BATTERIES
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
MANUFACTURING PROCESS ARE METHODS TO
CONVERT RAW MATERIAL INTO USEFUL
FINISHED PRODUCTS. FOLLOWING ARE
COMMON PROCESSES:
•FOUNDRY PROCESS
•METAL WORKING PROCESSES
•MACHINING PROCESSES
•JOINING AND ASSEMBLY
•SURFACE TREATMENT
COMMON METAL WORKING PROCESSES ARE
FORGING, ROLLING EXTRUSION, DRAWING,
WELDING, SOLDERING
 WELDING
WELDING IS A PROCESS OF JOINING OF
METALS BY HEATING WITH OR WITHOUT THE
USE OF FILLER METAL AND PRESSURE..
FOLLOWING ARE MOSTLY USED WELDING
TECHNIQUES:

•OXY-ACETYLENE
•SMAW
•GTAW (TIG)
•GMAW (MIG)
 SOLDERING & brazing
IT IS A METAL JOINING PROCESS USING HEAT & FILLER
IN WHICH FILLER METAL DOES NOT ALWAYS HAVE THE
SAME COMPOSITION AS BASE METAL. ALSO FILLER
METAL HAVE MELTING POINT LESS THAN 450OC, IF IT IS
GREATER THAN 450 IT IS BRAZING.
LINING & cladding
IN PROCESS INDUSTRY SOME VESSELS ARE MADE
MULTI-LAYERED WITH INNER LAYER BEING ANTI-
CORROSIVE LAYER, AND REST OF THE SHELL BEING OF
LESS COSTLY MATERIAL E.G. CARBON STEEL
IF THE MATERIAL IS WELDED THROUGHOUT INSIDE THE
SHELL OR EQUIPMENT IT IS CALLED LINING
IF THE MATERIAL IS BOUND UNDER PRESSURE WITH
EXTERNAL LAYER THEN IT IS CALLED CLADDING
 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
IT IS NECESSARY TO CHECK THE QUALITY OF MATERIAL
BEFORE TESTING IT. METALS CAN BE EITHER TESTED
BY :
• DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OR
• NON- DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
FOLLOWING ARE THE NON-DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES
APPLIED IN INDUSTRY
• VISUAL INSPECTION
• LIQUID PENETRANT TEST
• MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST
• ULTRA SONIC TEST
• RADIOGRAPHIC TEST
• EDDY CURRENT TEST
VISUAL INSPECTION
INSPECTION OF DEFECTS BY EYE, MAY USE MAGNIFIERS
BOROSCOPE ETC.

LIQUID PENETRANT TEST (DYE CHECK)

FOR SURF CRACKS WHICH CAN’T BE SEEN IN VISUAL
INSPECTION, USING PENTRANT AND DEVELOPER

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST

USED FOR SUB-SURFACE FLAWS. MATERIAL IS
MAGNETIZED AND WHEN A MAGNETIC FIELD IS FORMED
THE APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC PARTICLES FORCES
THEM TO RE-ARRANGE IN LINES. THE DICONTINUITY OF
LINES SHOW SUB-SURFACE CRACKS. FOR FERROUS
METALS ONLY
RADIOGRAPHIC TEST
USED FOR DETECTION OF FLAWS IN WELDS, USING
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM AND A POWERFUL RADIOACTIVE
SOURCE. THE PICTURE RECEIVED IS THEN INTERPRETED.
IT’S COSTLY & HAZARDOUS TECHNIQUE

EDDY CURRENT TESTING

USED FOR FLAW DETECTION, THICKNESS VARIATIONS
MEASUREMENT, VARIATION IN ALLOYS, VARIATION IN
COATING. USED FOR FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS
METALS
WHEN A CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL IS MAGNETIZED THRU
AC COIL SURFACE CURRENTS(EDDY CURRENTS) ARE
GENERATED.THESE EDDY CURRENTS HAVE THEIR OWN
MAGNETIC FIELD WHICH DISTURBS ORIGINAL MAGNETIC
FIELD. THE CHANGE IS PROMINENT IN DEFECTED PART
 STANDARDS
ANY SPECIFICATION, TEST METHOD,
DEFINITION, CLASSIFICATION OR PRACTICE
ABOUT MATERIALS, PRODUCTS OR SERVICE IS
CALLED A STANDARD. MANY STANDARDS ARE
FOLLOWED IN ENGINEERING INDUSTRY SOME
OF WHICH ARE A.S.T.M., A.I.S.I, A.S.M.E, A.N.S.I.,
A.P.I., D.I.N., J.I.S., A.F.N.O.R., ETC.

IN FFC ASTM, ANSI, AISI, API STANDARDS ARE

MOSTLY FOLLOWED AS FAR AS MATERIALS ARE
CONCERNED
 MATERIALS COMMONLY
USED
CARBON STEEL ASTM A-53, A-106, A-179, API 5L
STAINLESS STEEL ASTM A-312 304, 316,321, 347
ALLOY STEEL ASTM A-335 P1, P5, P11, P22
SPECIAL STEEL SS-UREA GRADE
NON-FERROUS METALS ALUMINUM, COPPER, BRASS
NON-METALS PVC, PP, FIBER GLASS, PE, etc.