Entomology

Emma M. Sabado
What is Entomology?
Entomology is the study of
insects.
• Scientists called
entomologist spend most of
their time studying insects
•The root word entomon is
Greek which means insect
and logos means study.
Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class - Insecta
Order- Diptera
Family- Agromyzidae
Genus- Hydrellia
Species- philippina
SN- Hydrellia philippina
 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
(arthros "joint", and poda "foot")

General characteristics
• Segmented bodies
• Paired, jointed appendages
• Bilateral symmetry
•
Bilateral symmetry (bi = two,
latus = side).
• body form could be divided into
matching halves by drawing a
line down the center.
• arthropods are built like humans
are; the right half of an
arthropod is a mirror image of its
left half.
• Exoskeleton
• Dorsal brain and ventral
nerve cord
Five important classes

1. Crustacea (shrimp)
2. Arachnida (spider)
3. Chilopoda (centipede)
4. Diplopoda (millipede)
5. Insecta (grasshopper) -
(Hexapoda)
Crustaceans possess:
1. Several body segments – head +
thorax (cephalothorax) and
abdomen
2. Varied number of legs- 5prs or
more
3. 2 pairs of antennae
(biramous/branching)
Class Arachnida (arachnids)
spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites
Arachnids possess:
2 body segments
cephalothorax
abdomen
8 legs/4 prs
1 pair of chelicerae
no antennae
Spiders are not insects, they differ
in several respects:
They have eight legs instead of six.
They have two body segments
instead of three.
The have eight simple eyes instead
of two compound eyes.
They have no antennae.
They never have wings.
They are never herbivores.
Insects Arachnids
• 3 body regions • 2 body regions
• 1 pair of antennae • No antennae
• 3 pair of legs • 4 pair of legs
• 2 pairs of wings • No wings
Chilipods possess:

• body is a flattened; many

segments
• one pair of legs per body
segment
• 1 pair of antennae
• Legs of the first segment
modified into poisonous claws.
Class Chilopoda
(Greek cheilos, meaning lip, and poda,
meaning foot)
» Carnivores
» Poison claws in head
» Eat arthropods, earthworms, snakes,
mice
» Have ONE pair of legs per segment
(not necessarily 100 legs!)
Class Diplopoda – Millipedes
»thousand-leggers
»Greek diplous - "double" + pous -
"foot, leg"
»two body segments in front with
one pair of legs each, and the rest
with legs have two pairs of legs
each (47 to 375 pairs of legs and 25
to 189 body segments, not counting
head and tail).
»Two pair of legs per segment
»Herbivores
»Feed on dead and dying plant
material
»Protect themselves by rolling into a
ball or use “nasty chemicals” to
dissuade their predators
Millipede eating
Characteristic Centipede Millipede
Antennae Long short
Number of Legs one pair per body two pairs per body
segment segment, except for
the first three
segments, which
have one pair each
Appearance of Legs visibly extend from do not visibly
sides of body; trail extend from body;
backward behind rear leg pairs in line
body with body
Movement fast runners slow walkers
Ability to Bite can bite do not bite
Feeding Habits mostly predatory mostly scavengers
centipede millipede
˃What is a Insect?
˃Insects have a body divided into three parts—head, thorax,
and abdomen. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax.
Unlike spiders who have
two body parts 
Head Thorax Abdomen

Co
py
rig
ht
Pe
ar
so
n
Pr
en
tic
e
» Insects are the largest group of
Arthropods
» Jointed appendages (bendable)
» Segmented bodies
» Exoskeleton of Chitin that must be
molted to grow
» Related to spiders, ticks, scorpions,
millipedes, crustaceans
Insect and body parts
General characteristics of insects:

The body is comprised of 3 distinct body

regions - head, thorax, and abdomen

A diagram of a human and an insect,

comparing the three main body
parts: head, thorax, and abdomen
 PAIRS OF PAIRS OF
CLASS MAIN BODY REGIONS
LEGS ANTENNAE WINGS
CRUSTACEA 2 – cephalothorax five or two absent
abdomen more

cephalothorax = fused head and thorax

MYRIAPODA- many - one one absent
Chilopoda 2 - head & trunk or two per
trunk
Diplopoda
segment
ARACHNIDA 2 - cephalothorax four none absent
- abdomen

INSECTA three - head, three one usually present

- thorax (but many
- abdomen wingless forms)
» diversity (>1 million spp.)

» role in ecosystem
+ food chain
+ decomposition
+ pollination
+ natural enemies

» impact on humans
+ disease vectors

» insects provide an estimated cost of $57 billion/ yr in

beneficial services
» diversity (>1 million spp.)
»1. diverse
» role in ecosystem
+ food chain
+
+
+
decomposition
pollination
natural enemies
»2. affect
» impact on humans
+ disease vectors
man and
animals
» insects provide an estimated cost of $57 billion/ yr in
beneficial services
Insects are the predominant multi-cellular life form on
Earth…successfully occupying numerous niches in terrestrial
ecosystems. There are about a million named
species…collections, particularly in rain forests suggest that
the true number could be 10 million or more.
» There are more
insects than all other
plants and animals
combined

» There are more than 1

million different
species

» 1 out of every 5
animals is a beetle!
»Class Insecta contains more
species than any other group of
animals.

Co
py
rig
ht
Pe
ar
so
n
Pr
en
tic
e
1. Small size- takes little food to
mature to reproductive age

2. Ability to fly- escape

enemies, adverse
environmental conditions
Unique body- waxy layer, strong
exoskeleton, jointed legs

High reproductive capacity- e.g.

CB female can lay 3000 eggs

Metamorphosis- adults and

young use different resources
 The reasons for insect success
1. Presence of adaptive features
2. Presence of exoskeleton
3. Small size
4.Presence of wings
5.Tremendous power of reproduction/Short generation
time/Metamorphosis
6. Interesting means of defense
7. cold-blooded animals/Gas exchange via tracheae

NOTE: All invertebrates with wings are insects but not

all insects have wings.
• Firefiles are beetles that family Lampyridae
• Fireflies glow because their tails contain
chemicals and enzymes (calcium, adenosine
triphosphate, luciferin and luciferase) to create a
bioluminescent chemical reaction.
• The flashing is used to attract mates.
• Fireflies help save lives. Researchers have
discovered that the luciferase produced by
fireflies is useful for anything from detecting
blood clots to tracking the efficacy of cancer
medications.
• Synthetic luciferase is now available which
means that the medical industry no longer needs
to harvest it from fireflies.
APTEROUS – without wings
Brachypterous – short wings
Macropterous- long wings
 Effects of Insects
A. Harmful Effects

1. Economic pests
2. Transmitters of diseases
3. Sources of annoyance or injury
4. Entomophobia- fear of insects
Facts you should know about
insects

»World-wide entomologists have

described about 1 million
species, systematists estimate
between 2 and 10 million

»Q: How many (%) are pests?

»< 1% are injurious
Pest -a living organism that occurs in such
numbers and places so that it is inconvenient to
human health, economics, comfort, or aesthetics.

Beneficial Insect- an insect which favorably

affects humans with the result of its actions
or products.
Losses in Agriculture
Preharvest 13.0%

Postharvest 3.5%

TOTAL 16.5%
Annual loss in the U.S. about $7 billion annually to insects
» Carnivore, animal matter

» Herbivore, plant matter

» Omnivore, plant and animal matter

» Detrivore, organic matter

» Saprophore, decaying matter

» Defoliators, leafminers
» Sap sucking
» Stem and shoot borers
» Wood borers
» Fruit and flower feeders
» Root feeders
» Seed feeders
 Injury to crops
DIRECT or INDIRECT injury

Injury to Humans and animals

Blood feeding - disease transmission
Internal & External Parasites
Annoyance
Injecting toxic substances
Destroy stored products and possessions
Dengue and
Zika virus are
transmitted by
Aedes aegypti
Mosquito. It
bites during
day time only.
Human malaria is
transmitted only by
females of the
genus Anopheles.
Culex is a genus of
mosquitoes which serve
as vectors of important
diseases of birds,
humans
& other animals. They
are vectors of
arbovirus infections,
West Nile virus,
filariasis, Japanese
encephalitis, St. Louis
encephalitis, and avian
malaria.
Effects of Insects
B. Beneficial Effects
1.Pollination
2. Natural enemies
3. Sources of useful products (honey, silk
and pigments
4. As food for man (Entomophagy)
5. As food for animals that are valuable
to man
Other uses:
1. Indicators of water
pollution
2. Improve soil fertility
3. Aesthetic purposes
4. Materials for scientific
studies
»Bees legs
and bodies
are covered
with hairs
for
collecting
pollen
The pollen basket or corbicula is part of
the tibia on the hind legs of certain
species of bees. They use the structure in
harvesting pollen and returning it to the
nest or hive
» Entomophagous- insects that feed on
other insects.
˃These insects eat the insects that
cause damage to plants
˃act as scavengers or feed on
undesirable plants to contribute to
nutrient recycling.
Parasitoid- an insect parasitizing
another insect.
 Taxonomic Specialization
» Apiology (or melittology) - (study of) bees
» Coleopterology - beetles
» Dipterology - flies
» Heteropterology - true bugs
» Lepidopterology - moths and butterflies
» Myrmecology - ants
» Orthopterology - grasshoppers, crickets, etc.
» Trichopterology - caddis flies
» Culicidology – mosquitoes
 History of World Entomology

Prehistory - 13,000 BC
The earliest evidence of man's interest in
insects is from rock paintings. The insects
depicted are bees.
1800–1700 BC
Bees were significant in other early
civilisations, for instance at Malia, Crete,
where jewelry depicts two golden bees
holding a drop of honey
Egypt, Greek and Roman Empires
» Scarab Beetle painted on wall
of Rameses IX tomb c. 1000 BC
» A scarab beetle, depicted on
the walls of Tomb KV6 in
» the Valley of the Kings.
» 620–560 BC
» Aristotle writes History of Animals . He is
the founder of General Entomology
» 1st to systematize knowledge on insects.
» 1669 - Microscopist Jan
Swammerdam publishes
» History of Insects correctly
» describing the reproductive
» organs of insects and metamorphosis.
» The anatomist Marcello Malpighi publishes a
treatise on the structure and development of
the silkworm, the first description of the
anatomy of an invertebrate.
» The Malpighian tubule system is
the excretory system of insects named after
Malpighi.
» 1705 - Maria Sybilla Merian
published her major work,
Metamorphosis Insectorum
Surinamensium
» (Transformations of the
Insects of Surinam) for
which she became famous.
» She is considered as "the mother of
entomology“. Her work was the first to
record the full life cycle of many species
of butterflies and moths.
» 1758 – Publication of Tenth edition
of Carl Linnaeus' Systema Naturae
» Linnaeus made a great
contribution to science by
developing systems of classification.
» His system of binomial nomenclature
provided essential tools for entomology.
» The tenth edition (1758–59), was chosen as
the starting point for zoological
nomenclature.
William Kirby (1759 –1850)-
an English entomologist
called the “Father of
Entomology”
in England. He extensively
studied insects.
1787–1834 - THOMAS SAY
published AMERICAN
ENTOMOLOGY
which merited him become
the “FATHER OF AMERICAN
ENTOMOLOGY”
1870 – BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL was 1st
demonstrated as a
practical control. The
Vedalia lady bird beetle
Rodolia cardinalis
(Coleoptera:Coccinellidae
) was introduced to
control the cottony
cushion scale, Icerya
purchasi
(Homoptera:Coccoidea), a
very serious pest of citrus
in Califonia
1898- RON ROSS
discovered the
relationship between
the Anopheline
mosquito and the
transmission of
malaria.
1900 – WALTER
REED – working in
Panama proved a
mosquito, Aedes
aegypti carried
yellow fever.
1939 – PAUL
MULLER (Swiss
scientist) in
Europe
discovered DDT
(Dichloro-
Diphenyl-
Trichloroethane)
1960s – a new
emphasis on the
application of
ecological principles in
pest management
developed. RACHEL
CARLSON’S book
SILENT SPRING caused
significant public
awareness of the
environment .
DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE
ENTOMOLOGY
1521 - Magellan’s discovery; leaf insect in Palawan
was first recorded by Pigafetta, the chronic writer
of Magellan.

1569 - Swarm of locusts affected agricultural crops

1593 - Introduction of sericulture (rearing of

silkworm, Bombyx mori) and the cultivation of
mulberry trees for feeding purposes.
1826 - the
starling bird,
Martinez was
introduced by
Gov. Martinez
and this marked
the first
 EARLY AMERICAN OCCUPATION
1902 - fungus was introduced as microbial
control for locusts
- Charles Banks, first American
entomologist headed the Bureau of
Government Laboratory, later known as
National Institute of Science and Technology
( now the Department of Science and
Technology).

1906 - Philippine Journal of Science was

1908 - Ludlow put up his work on
mosquitoes.
1909 - UP College of Agriculture was
founded. Ledyard was the head of the
Department of Entomology.
1912 - Quarantine Law was enacted by
Philippine Legislature.
Charles Baker became the first dean of
the UP College of Agriculture.
- He was a systematist who identified
Philippine insects, communicating 150
taxonomists around the world.
He hired Julian Valdez for collecting insects;
-

1st Philippine insect collector

1915 - Leopoldo Uichanco, an instructor of

UP Dept of Entomology became the first
Filipino to obtain an MS degree in 1918.

1919 - Plant Pest Section was headed by G.

Merino; a combination of entomology and
pathology.
1922 - Leopoldo Uichanco obtained his PhD
(first) followed by Dr. Silverio Cendana.

1926 – Gerardo Ocfemia study abaca virus,

transmitted by Pentalonia negronervosa, an
aphid vector. His study was significant since
the Philippines was exporting Manila Hemp
from abaca fiber. He is known as the Dean
of Filipino Pathologists.

1931 - De Mesa was associated with forest

problems particularly the wood borer.
 SETBACK AND REBUILDING
1946 - DDT was first used in the Philippines
followed by a miraculous reduction of
insect pests.

1947 - Dr. Claire Baltazar

became the first Filipino
woman entomologist. She is
famous in classification
of insects.
1961 - Prof. Leo Rimando considered as the first
Filipino acarologist.
1962 - Philippine Entomological Society was
founded. Dr. Silverio Cendana became the first
president.
1966 - first catalogue of Philippine Hymenoptera
was published; authored by Dr. Claire Baltazar.
-Culicidology ( study of mosquitoes) authored by
Mercedes Delfinado (later connected with
Smithsonian Institution).
1976 - establishment of the National Crop
Protection Center under Dr. Fernando Sanchez.
 PILLARS OF PHIL ENTOMOLOGY

Dr. Venus Calilung - Philippine aphidologist

Dr. Leonila Raros - 2nd Philippine

acarologist

Dr. Candida Adalla - expert on host plant

resistance (HPR)

Dr. Victor Gapud - worked on Philippine

Hemiptera/Odonata
Dr. Eliseo Cadapan - expert on
biological control

Dr. Edwin Magallona & Dr. Belen

Morallo-Rejesus – insect toxicologists

Dr. Bernardo Gabriel & Dr. Leodegario

Padua – insect pathologists
Dr. Cecilia Reyes - worked on
Philippine Thysanoptera

Dr. Alberto Barrion – works on

Philippine spiders
THE INSECT HEAD

AND

ITS APPENDAGES
A look at the outside of an insect:
The exoskeleton is comprised of

sclerites: (hardened plates)

Tergites: Dorsal plates
Sternites: Ventral plates
Pleuron: Lateral area, often
membranous
The orientation of the
mouthparts on the head
may differ, and they may be
described as:
Prognathous: projecting
forward (horizontal)
Hypognathous: projecting
downward
Opisthognathous: projecting
obliquely or posteriorly
(toward the coxea of the 1st
pair of legs)
The Head

The head capsule, or epicranium is like box

with six sides.
It consists of the top, dorsal aspect or vertex;
the face, anterior or frontal aspect, the frons
(face),
lateral aspects or genae (cheeks);
the back part, posterior aspects or occiput,
which connects with the thorax,
and the bottom or ventral aspect where the
mouthparts are located.
The insect head bears:
mouthparts, eyes, and antennae
» Compound eyes (2)
» Ocelli (3) (simple eyes)
» Antennae (2)
» The mouthparts
˃ Mandibulae (2)
˃ Maxillae (2)
˃ Labium
˃ Labrum
˃ Hypopharynx
Insect Head
Occiput
Compound Eyes

Ocelli

Frons

Gena

Clypeus
Mandible

Labrum

1st Maxilla
Labium (2nd Maxilla)
»Compound Eyes (C) -
made up of many small C
lenses, called ommatidia.
C
»Purpose: detect
movement, light intensity
and color.
»Simple Eyes (S) - “ocelli”
Insects have 0-3 simple 16

eyes. 2

Purpose: detect light

»One Pair on head FILIFORM

»Jointed
»Sensory (smell)
»Called “feelers”
Insect Antenna
Antennal Antennal
socket sclerite Pedicel

Flagellum

Antennifer Antennal Scape

suture
• Insects have one pair of antennae.
• May have the function of touch, smell, and
in some cases, hearing.
• Used for navigation, food location, grasping
(in some species)
• Used for detection of:
• temperature
• chemicals produced by plants & other
members of their species (pheromones)
• Shape, number, and size of the segments are frequently used for identification.
• The overall appearance of the antennae are also used in identification.

plumose lamellate serrate filiform

geniculate pectinate aristate capitate

» The antennae are primarily sensory
structure
» It is characteristics of insects that the
pedicel contains a chordotonal organ
(Johnstons organ), which respond to
movement of the flagellum with respect to
the pedicel.
» Both scape and pedicel have hair plates and
a group of campaniform sensilla that
provide information on the positions of the
basal segment with respect to the head and
to each other.
 Mouthparts
Labrum (1) (Upper lip)
Mandibles (2) (Jaws)
Maxillae (2) (More jaws)
Labium (1) (Lower lip)
Hypopharynx (1) (Tongue-like, bears
openings of salivary ducts)
Labrum-epipharynx (1) (Fleshy inner surface
of labrum) – sensory
The 4 main mouthparts are the labrum,
mandibles, maxillae (plural maxilla) and
labium.
 Insect Mouthparts

Labrum

Mandible
Hypopharynx

1st Maxilla

Labium (2nd maxilla)

Insect Mouthparts
Labrum

-”upper lip”

- contains chemosensory sensilla

Insect Mouthparts
Mandible Molar surface

Incisor surface
Insect Mouthparts
1st Maxilla
Cardo

Stipes

Palp
Lacinia

Galea
Insect Mouthparts
Labium
(2nd Maxilla)

Submentum

Mentum

Prementum
Glossa

Palp
Paraglossa

can be fused to form a

Ligula
Comparison of 1st and 2nd Maxillae

Cardo

Stipes
Submentum
Mentum

Palp
Lacinia Prementum
Glossa
Palp
Paraglossa
Galea
•Variations in insect mouthparts
are frequently used in the
identification of insects.

•Mouthparts also tell us

something about the food habits
of the insect 19
2
1. Chewing mouthparts - the most
common which can cut, chew and grind
food
•mandibles chop & chew the food.
•maxillas hold the food & assist the
mandibles.
• The maxillary & and labial palps taste
the food.
•Labium function as the lower lip and
the labrum the upper lip.
•The hypopharynx "tongue" helps
manipulate the food.
 » Usually found on
insects that are
predators,
aggressive, or feed
on vegetation.
» Mouth parts seen
here are called the
mandibles
http://www.backyardnature.net/insmouth.htm
–chewing mouthparts
Haustellate mouthparts are
primarily used for sucking
liquids and can be broken
down into two subgroups:
those that possess stylets and
those that do not
Stylets are needle-like projections
used to penetrate plant and
animal tissue. The modified
mandibles, maxilla, and
hypopharynx form the stylets and
the feeding tube. After piercing
solid tissue, insects use the
modified mouthparts to suck
liquids from the host
Some haustellate
mouthparts lack stylets.
Unable to pierce tissues,
these insects must rely on
easily accessible food
sources such as nectar at
the base of a flower.
2. Piercing sucking type. The
mouthparts of aphids, cicadas, leaf-
hoppers, scale insects and others are
modified to pierce their plant host
and suck juices from it
»Piercing-sucking type - a
proboscis that pierces
tissue and sucks out fluids.

»Examples:
• Aphids
• Mosquitoes
• Wheel bug
3. Siphoning tube type.
Adult moths and
butterflies feed on nectar
and other liquids sucked
up through a long
proboscis. (Lepidoptera).
»Siphoning Mouthparts

Tubelike mouthpart used to suck nectar

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall Moth

 4. Sponging mouthpart is
modified into a flattened,
rounded structure used
for sapping and sponging
liquified food (houseflies).
The spongelike apex is called
labellum/labella.
Ex. Housefly , Musca
domestica
»Specialized Mouthparts

Fly

Spongelike mouthpart
used to lap up food
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
5.Cutting-sponging type.
The mouthparts of many
flies are modified to cut
an opening into tissue
and sponge up the fluid.
6. Chewing-lapping type.
Bees and wasps have
mouthparts which permit
chewing and tearing of
tissue; the fluid material is
"lapped up" .
7. Rasping-sucking.
Thrips have
asymmetrical
mouthparts ( only the
left mandible is present
used to rasp tissues)
8. Filtering type. Aquatic
insects have mouthparts
equip with setae acting as
filters for getting foods.
(Odonata-dragonflies &
damselflies).
NOTES:
Chewing mouth parts move sideways like
pliers to tear and chew.
Piercing sucking mouth parts work like a
syringe.
Siphoning mouth parts work like a straw to
suck up nectar.
Sponge like mouth parts soak up liquids.
No mouth parts some adult insects (mayflies,
atlas moth) have
no mouths and do not eat in their adult stage
Tentorium
- internal support for the head capsule

Posterior arms

Anterior arms

Dorsal arms

Cut away view of the head capsule

Tentorium
- internal support for the head capsule
INSECT THORAX
The exoskeleton is
comprised of sclerites:
(hardened plates)
Tergites: Dorsal plates
Sternites: Ventral plates
Pleuron: Lateral area,
often membranous
Size and shape of the legs
and wings are important
characteristics for
identifying insects
23
7
»Contains the appendages for
movement
–Insects have three pairs of legs
–Insects are the only invertebrates
capable of active flight.
They have 0-2 pairs of wings. 23
8
–Only adult insects have wings
 Insect Thorax
- 3 segmented
Anterior Posterior

Prothorax Mesothorax Metathorax

Pterothorax
Thorax - composed of 3 segments,
each usually bearing a pair of legs;
in many groups the second and
third segments each bear a pair of
wings.
Thorax performed the locomotion
of insects.( Posses 3 pairs of legs
and 2 pairs of wings).
» Prothorax –
forelegs without
wings.

» Mesothorax –
midlegs and
forewings.
» Metathorax –
hindlegs and
» hindwings.
Each thoracic segment is like a box with
four sides: the top, notum (plural, nota)
or dorsum; lateral plates or , pleuron
and ventral plate or sternum (plural,
sterna).
This leads to the nota and pleura being
named 'Pronotum', 'Mesonotum',
'Metanotum' and 'Propleuron',
'Mesopleuron' and 'Metapleuron‘,
ventral part as Prosternum,
Mesosternum & Metasternum.
»The notum or the dorsal
plate: scutum, scutellum,
postnotum (tergum for
abdomen). The sternum (the
ventral plate); basisternum,
sternellum . The pleuron (the
side plate); (episternum,
epimeron).
 scutellum

epimeron

episternum

sternellum
basisternum
 The Insect Leg
The legs has several segments.
1. Front leg - push the body of
insect to move forward
2. Middle leg - center in which
insect walk
3. Hind leg - posterior part of
insect which help the front and
middle leg to stand and walk and
Parts:
Coxa – the segment which articulates
with the thorax
Trochanter or the hinge is usually quite
small.
Femur – or thigh is usually the longest
and strongest segment.
Tibia – or shin is usually long and slender.
Tarsus – consisting of one to five
segments , a pair of claws and adhesive
pad.
Thoracic Appendages - Legs

tibia

femur
tarsus
coxa

trochanter pretarsus
The term pretarsus refers to the
terminal segment of the tarsus and
any other structures attached to it
including the following:
a. Ungues- a pair of claws ;
b. Arolium- a lobe or adhesive pad
between the claws ;
c. Empodium- a large bristle between the
claws ;
d. Pulvilli- a pair of adhesive pads
Terminal Segments of the Tarsus
 Modification of Insect Leg

Gressorial /Ambulatory leg- it is modified for

walking
Cursorial leg- running-ex. Cockroach
Fossorial leg- digging- ex. Mole criket
Natatorial leg- swimming- ex. Water striders
Raptorial leg- Grasping-ex. preying mantis
Scansorial leg – Clinging ex. Head lice
Saltatorial leg- jumping- ex. Grasshopper
Stridulating/Sound producing – hind femur of
locusts robbed against their forewings at
high speed
Cursorial (running)

Tiger beetle (Coleoptera: Cicindellidae)

 Thoracic Appendages - Legs
Modifications
Digging (Fossorial)

Mole cricket (Orthoptera:Gryllotalpidae)

 Digging (Fossorial)

June Beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

 Saltatorial (jumping)

Migratory locust (Orthoptera)

»Raptorial- grasping legs for
capturing prey
Natatorial (swimming)

Predaceous diving beetle (Coleoptera:Dytiscidae)

»Most adults have 2
pairs
»Called forewings and
hindwings
»Some insects are
wingless (silverfish,
fleas, some termites
and ants)
»Apterous- without wings
»Brachypterous--- with short
wings
»Macropterous--- with long
wings

»Alate---winged aphids
»Apterous- wingless aphids
The Insect Wing
Types of Insect Wing
1. Membranous: e.g. Dragonfly, honeybee
and termites: Wings are thin and transparent.
They are supported by a system of tubular
veins. w/c strengthens the wings.
2. Fringed type. Ex. thrips: Wing margins
fringed with long setae. These insects literally
swim through the air.
3. Haltere: Wings are modified into small knobbed
vibrating organ called halteres, which act as
balancing organs and provided the needed stability
during flight.
» Order Diptera
(flies)
» 2nd pair of wings
modified into
HALTERES
» Used for balance
» Makes flies hard
to catch!
4. Scaly: e.g. Moths and Butterflies: Wings are
covered with scales which are responsible for
colour.
5. Tegmina: e.g. Forewings of Grasshopper
and Cockroach: Wings are leathery or
parchment-like. They are protective in
function. They are not useful for flight.
6. Elytra: e.g. Forewings of Beetles and
Weevils: Wing is heavily sclerotized and
thick.
 ELYTRA

• Hard Forewing called

Elytra
• Meet in straight line
down the abdomen
• Membranous
hindwings folded
underneath (flight)
7. Hemelytra: e.g. Bug: The basal half of
the wing is thick and leathery. The distal
half is membranous. They are protective
in function and not involved in flight.
 Wing Coupling Devices

Hamuli are tiny hooks on the anterior

margin of the hind wing. These hooks
engage a vein on the posterior margin
of the forewing.
Frenulum - is a bristle on the hind
wing of many butterflies and moths.
The frenulum fits into a hook on the
forewing like a safety pin.
Wing Coupling Devices
Frenulum (Lepidoptera) frenulum
Hamate (Hymenoptera)
Hamuli (hooks)
Jugum (Lepidoptera)
 Insect Abdomen
tergum

pleural membrane

sternum
»Contains most
of the vital
organs for:
•Digestion
•Circulation
•Excretion
29
•Reproduction. 0
• posterior segments modified for
mating and oviposition.
• 11-segmented;spiracles present on
segments 1 to 8.
• Ano-genital part in segments 8 or 9.
• Segment 10 lacks appendages.
• Segment 11 has a pair of
appendages - Cerci
 The Insect Abdomen and
External Genitalia
Spiracles - the first segments
serving as the breathing organ.
Aedeagus - ( penis) located the
eight abdominal segment
Ovipositor - female organ is
located between eight and nine
segments.
» Openings to
the
breathing
tubes
(tracheae)
which
support
respiration in
insects.
» The “ear” of the insect.
A tymbal is a term for a
corrugated exoskeleton
structure used to produce
sounds in insects. In male
cicadas, the tymbals are
membranes in the
abdomen, responsible for
the characteristic sound 29
5

produced by the insect.

Generalized Male Genitalia
cercus
anus

aedeagus

aedeagus
• Found only on female insects
• Used for laying eggs

29
7

Unit 2
 Ovipositor
» Egg laying structure (female only)
» Becomes sting in bees and wasps
Ichneumon wasp ovipositor
» a modified ovipositor, found only in the
females of Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and
predatory wasps).
Hymenoptera - Stinger
»Honey bees will actively seek out
and sting when they perceive the
hive to be threatened, often being
alerted by the release of attack
pheromones that prompt other
nearby bees to attack.
»Honey bees are the only
hymenoptera with a strongly
barbed sting
The larger drone bees, the males, do
not have stingers.
The female worker bees are the only
ones that can sting, and their stinger
is a modified ovipositor.
The queen bee has a smooth stinger
5]

which can sting multiple times not for

defense of the hive; she only uses it
for dispatching rival queens before
they can emerge from their cells
»Melittin is the principal active
component of apitoxin (bee
venom).

»In one of the medical uses of honey

bee products, apitherary, bee
venom has been used to treat
arthritis and other painful
conditions. [
Other Modifications for Oviposition
Diptera - Musca
Other Abdominal Appendages

Epiproct is a somewhat
triangular sclerite just above the
anal opening on the dorsal side
of the 11th segment

Paraprocts are sclerites laterally

surrounding the anal opening
 Primary appendages

T11 epiproct
T10

cerci
paraproct
T7 T8
T6
T5 T9
Cornicles a pair of short
tubers on the last tergal
segment of aphids

Furcula-tenaculum– the
springing, propulsion
mechanism on the center of
Collembola
» Leg-like outgrowth of the body wall,
known as prolegs, are common in larva
or holometabolous.
» the proleg is flattened usually armed
with hook-shaped structures called
crochets.
» their arrangement varies.
Prolegs - Lepidoptera
larvae

Prolegs
» Cerci (singular Cercus) are paired
appendages on the abdomen of many
species of insect. Cerci perform a sensory
function.
» The size of cerci varies between species.
» The cerci maybe simple, unsegmented as in
Orthoptera, or multisegmented as in
Blattodea. They maybe very short or long
and filamentous, as long or longer than the
body as in Thysanura.
Cerci

31
6
Cerci - modified as claspers
Male Odonata
Male Phasmida (stick insects)
» Gills are present on the abdominal
segments of the larvae of many aquatic
insects. Ephemeroptera with 6-7 pairs
of plate-like or filamintous gills.
» play a direct role in
gaseous exchange,
maintaining a flow of
water above the body.
Insect’s Exoskeleton
1. Supports the weight of the body.
2. Protects the body from minor injury.
3. Provides internal attachment point for the
muscles.
4. Allows some chemicals to pass in or out of
the body.
5. The waxy layer prevents desiccation (water
loss). 32
3
These plates make sutures plates
up the insect’s
exoskeleton.
» These
plates are
connected
by joints or
sutures that
make 32
the skeleton 4

flexible.
»The main component of
the exoskeleton is chitin.
 The cuticle has an outer waxy layer.
Waxy layer

Cuticle

32
6

Unit 2
Waxy layer

Cuticle
32
8
» The cuticle contains chitin complexed with
protein.
» Chitin is an amino-sugar polysaccharide
composed linked units of N-acetyl-D-
glucosamine.
» Chitin molecules are grouped into bundles.
» The strength of the cuticle comes from:
˃Hydrogen bonding
˃Sclerotization
˃Melanization
1. Epicuticle
˃3µm down to 0.1µm thickness.
˃The superficial layer is covered
by a lipid or a wax layer and,
external to this, a cement layer.
˃Prevents dehydration
2. Procuticle
˃Two layers – endocuticle and exocuticle,
differentiated by sclerotization .
˃From 10µm down to 0.5µm thick.
˃Consists primarily of chitin
3. Epidermis
˃A single layer of cells.
˃Secrets the cuticle.
» Size increase is by moulting – periodical
formation of new cuticle of greater surface
area and shedding the old cuticle.
» Moulting is a complex process involving
hormonal, behavioural, epidermal and
cuticular changes that lead up to the
shedding of the old cuticle.
» The epidermal cells are actively involved in
moulting.
Summary of Molting
Step 1: Apolysis -- separation of
old exoskeleton from epidermis
Step 2: Secretion of inactive
molting fluid by epidermis
Step 3: Production of cuticulin
layer for new exoskeleton
Step 4: Activation of molting fluid
Step 5: Digestion and absorption of
old endocuticle
Step 6: Epidermis secretes new
procuticle
Step 7: Ecdysis -- shedding the old
exo- and epicuticle
Step 8: Expansion of new integument
Step 9: Tanning -- sclerotization of
new exocuticle
»Moulting and metamorphosis are
controlled by three major types of
hormones:
˃Neuropeptides
˃Ecdysteroids.
˃Juvenile hormone (JH)
» Insect Growth Regulators
˃ Chitin synthesis inhibitors
+ Benzoylphenyl ureas (Diflubenzuron,
Chlorfluazuron, Teflubenzuron, Hexaflumuron,
Lufenuron, Flufenoxuron, Novaluron)
+ Triazine (Cyromazine)
+ Buprofezine
˃ Juvenile hormone mimics (Fenoxycarb, Pyriproxyfen).
˃ Ecdysone agonists (Methoxyfenozide)
»Metamorphosis
˃The growth and development of
insects usually involves metamorphosis,
which is a process of changing shape
and form.
˃Insects undergo either gradual,
incomplete metamorphosis or complete
metamorphosis.
The growth and development of insects
usually involve metamorphosis, which is a
process of changing shape and form.
Types of Metamorphosis
1. Ametabola
• no change.
• Young emerge from the egg looking very
much like a small adult.
• With each instar, the insect increases in size
and eventually gains sexual maturity
• primitive insects may continue to grow and
moult even after becoming adult.
Silverfish Springtails
2. Hemimetabola
(Odonata, Ephemeroptera)

-incomplete metamorphosis
• 3 distinct stages in the life cycle -
egg, naiad and adult.
• naiad is aquatic
• adult is terrestrial
• breathe through gills and appear
different to their adults
• Beneficial insects
»Immature
stage.
Resembles
the adult to
some extent.
A stage in
incomplete
metamorpho
sis.
3. Paurometabola
• the immature (nymph) insect
resemble the adult in many
respects and both have the same
habit.(e.g. leafhopper)
• Wings develop externally on immature
and are full formed in adult
• three life stages of development
Egg-nymph-adult
 EGG  NYMPH  ADULT
» Siphonaptera (fleas)
» Isoptera (termites)
» Orthoptera
(grasshoppers &
crickets)
» Hemiptera (true bugs)
» Homoptera (cicadas & Wings NOT fully
developed
hoppers)
Adult
Adult

Eggs

Gradual Metamorphosis

Nymph Nymph

Nymph

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

 INCOMPLETE
METAMORPHOUS

Insects change shape

gradually!
4.Holometabola – complete
metamorphosis
•4 life stages - egg, larva,
pupa and adult.
•The larva is usually a
caterpillar, grub or maggot
and bears little resemblance
to the adult.
In complete or holometabolous
metamorphosis, eggs hatch into
larvae that look and act nothing like
their parents.
They feed and grow rapidly and molt
a few times.
They undergo a final molt and change
into a pupa—the stage in which an
insect changes from larva to adult.
• Larva is the feeding
stage/damaging stage
• Pupa is usually an
inactive/resting stage Flies
(Diptera), beetles (Coleoptera),
wasps (Hymenoptera) and
butterflies (Lepidoptera), have
holometabolous metamorphosis
 Larva

Egg
Pupa

Adult
 Four stages that all look different

CHANGE IN FORM FROM EGG TO ADULT

 EGG  LARVA  PUPA  ADULT
» Coleoptera
(beetles)
» Hymenoptera
(bees, ants,
wasps)
» Diptera (flies)
Lepidoptera
(butterflies)
»What is a larva?
»A larva is a young
insect with a soft
tubular body and
looks very much like a
worm.
Larval forms can be named by
the number and type of legs
they possess.

The larval form (or pupal form)

is important in the
identification of the order and
family of insect.
•Apod- without legs/legless

•Oligopod larvae have only the 3

pair of sclerotised, jointed legs.
E.g. many beetles

•Polypod larvae (also called

eruciform) have 3 pair of
sclerotised, jointed legs and
fleshy, abdominal 'prolegs
•Eruciform- caterpillar; body cylindrical
with short thoracic legs and 2-10 pairs of
fleshy abdominal prolegs (Lepidoptera)
Scarabaeiform; white grub, body robust &
“C”-shaped; no abdominal prolegs & short
thoracic legs (June beetle) (Coleoptera)
Campodeiform- Crawler; Elongated,
flattened body with prominent antennae
and/or cerci. Thoracic legs adapted for
Vermiform- maggot; body fleshy, worm-like,
no head capsule; legless (Diptera) (house
flies; leaf miners)
»What is a pupa?
»The pupa stage is a
dormant stage where
the larva changes into
an adult.
Types of Pupae

Obtect pupae have appendages

fused to the body
Exarate pupae have appendages
free from the body
Coarctate pupae are contained
within the last larval
exoskeleton, the puparium.
 Fly free pupa in
Obtect pupa (butterfly)
Exarate pupa (honey bee) the puparium
Obtect- Chrysalis; developing
appendages (antennae, wings,
legs, etc.) held tightly against
the body by a shell-like
casing. Often found enclosed
within a silken cocoon.(moths &
butterflies)
Exarate- All developing appendages free
and visible externally (Beetles, Lacewings)
Coarctate-
Puparium;
body
encased
within the
hard
exoskeleton
of the
next-to-
last larval
instar
(Flies)
The Digestive and Excretory System

The Digestive System , also known

as the ALIMENTARY CANAL (gut) is
basically a continuous tube running the
length of the insect from mouth to anus
in which various process of digestion,
absorption and excretion take place.
The canal is comprised of threemain
regions: the STOMODAEUM (foregut),
the MESENTERON (midgut), and the
PROCTODAEUM (hindgut)
» There are three main regions
to the insect gut (or alimentary
canal)

˃The foregut (stomodeum)

+Is concerned with ingestion,
storage, grinding and
transport of the food to the
next region.
+Has cuticular lining.
˃.
˃The midgut (mesenteron).
+Digestive enzymes are
produced and secreted and
absorption of the products of
digestion occurs.
˃The hindgut (proctodeum),
+Has cuticular lining.
+Absorption of water, salts
and other valuable molecules
» The insecticide is produced by the bacteria Bacillus
thuringiensis.
» It kills insects primarily through the action of δ-
endotoxin, a proteinous constituent produced
during sporulation.
» It affects the insect midgut epithelium upon
ingestion.
» Sporulated cells containing the δ-endotoxin, in
formulated forms, are used as insecticides for
controlling lepidopteran pests in various agricultural
crops.
» Transgenic plants producing Bt-endotoxin as a
systemic insecticide are available.
» Bt insecticides are considered safe to the
environment with a little or no harm to natural
enemies.
 The Circulatory System

The CS is responsible for the transport

of absorbed nutrients, metabolic
waste products, hormones and various
types of blood cells within the
insect body
•The system is OPEN, which means that
the blood is not exclusively
limited to veins but is also free to flow
throughout the haemocoel or body
cavity
• The major organ for circulating the
haemolymph is the DORSAL VESSEL
that runs
» the length of the insect
• The HEART is the posterior portion of
this tube
• Holding the Dorsal Vessel in place are a
number of triangular ALARY MUSCLES
• The haemolymph is drawn through small
OSTIA (or inlet valves) on each
» heart chamber before being pumped by
peristalsis (or rhythmic contractions) into
the anterior section of the vessel called
AORTA
• The haemolymph is composed of
PLASMA (or the liquid medium in which
the
» nutrients, hormones and wastes are
carried HAEMOCYTES (which are the
blood
» cells which have a number of functions
such as encapsulation of foreign
particles
» and parasites, coagulation, healing of
wounds . Hemoglobin is not present in
most insects so oxygen transfer is not a
function of the haemolymph
» Haemolymph, the insect body fluid,
circulates freely around the internal organs.
» The flow is assisted by muscular
contractions of a longitudinal dorsal vessel.
The anterior part - the aorta; and the
posterior part is sometimes called the
heart.
» Haemolymph does not directly contact the
cells.
» All chemical exchanges between insect
tissues are mediated via the haemolymph,
but it doesn't participates in gas
exchanging.
» In almost all insects, gas exchange occurs by
means of internal air-filled tracheae.
» Air usually enters the tracheae via
spiracular openings positioned laterally on
the body.
» These tubes branch and ramify through the
body. The finest branches (tracheoles)
contact all internal organs and tissues.
»Spiracles have a chamber or atrium
with an opening-and-closing
mechanism or valve.
»The tracheae are invaginations of
the epidermis and thus their lining
is continuous with the body cuticle.
»Gas exchange may be by diffusion
or by active pump movements
» The reproduction in most insects is
sexual. The mating comes after a
complex courtship that allows the
female to choose the best male.
» Many female insects store the sperm
that they receive in the spermatheca.
» Sometimes sperm remain viable for a
considerable time, even years.
 germarium
ovariole

ovary
vitellarium
spermathecal gland
pedicel spermatheca
lateral oviduct

common epithelium
oviduct oocyte
accessory glands

genital chamber ovariole

The female system

»Gonochorism - Sexual reproduction
with separate male and female
individuals. The usual mode of
reproduction in insects.
»Hermaphroditism - Possess both
male and female reproductive
systems in one individual (Cottony
cushion scales – Icerya purchasi).
»Parthenogenesis - development
from unfertilized eggs (aphids).
»Polyembryony – Asexual
reproduction that involves the
production of two or more
embryos from one egg by
subdivision (parasitic wasps).
 testicular tube

testis

vas deferens

accessory gland

seminal
vesicle

ejaculatory organ

The male system

Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum- Arthropoda
Class- Insecta
Order- Coleoptera (beetles)
Family- Curculionidae (weevils)
Genus- Cylas
Species- formicarius (sweet potato
weevil)
» Most insect pests belong to six orders

˃Orthoptera - grasshopper and locust

˃Hemiptera -leaf hoppers and plant
bugs
˃Lepidoptera – moths and butterflies
˃Homoptera – aphids
˃Thysanoptera - thrips
˃Coleoptera - beetles (the largest
group of the insect orders)
SUBCLASSES & FEATURES
APTERYGOTA
»These are wingless insects and
their body structure suggests
that they have never had wings
during their evolutionary history.
Young stages resemble the
adults - little or no
metamorphosis.
The Insect Wing
PTERYGOTA
Division EXOPTERYGOTA
» These are winged insects, although some have
lost their wings during the course of evolution.
» When present, the wings develop externally and
there is no marked change (metamorphosis)
during the life cycle.
» The young stages, called nymphs, resemble the
adults except in size and in lacking fully-
developed wings .
» They have incomplete/hemimetabolous or
gradual/paurometbolous metamorphosis.
PTERYGOTA
Division Endopterygota
» These are winged insects, although some have
lost their wings during the course of evolution.
» When present, the wings develop internally (i.e.
inside the body of the immature insect)
» there is a marked change (metamorphosis)
during the life cycle.
» The young stages are very different from the
adults and are called larvae. The change from
larva to adult takes place during a non-feeding
stage called the pupa (or chrysalis) - complete
metamorphosis.
SERIES Paleoptera vs. Neoptera - old
wings vs. new wings

» relates to if wings can be folded

» Series Paleoptera (wings not folded)
» Series Neoptera (wings folded)
1.Protura
2.Colllembola
3. Diplura
4. Thysanura
PTERYGOTE INSECT ORDERS
Division Exopterygota
5. Odonata (dragonflies &
damselflies)
6. Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
7. Orthoptera (grasshoppers)
8. Dermaptera (earwigs)
9. Isoptera (termites)
10. Plecoptera (stoneflies)
11. Hemiptera (true bugs)
12. Homoptera (aphids, cicada,
whiteflies)
13.Anoplura (sucking lice)
14. Mallophaga (bird/chewing lice)
15. Thysanoptera (thrips)
16. Psocoptera (booklice)
17. Embioptera (web-spinners)
18. Phasmatodea (walking stick)
19. Blattodea (cockroaches)
20. Mantodea (praying mantis)
DIVISION ENDOPTERYGOTA
21. Neuroptera (lacewings, antlions)
22. Coleoptera (beetles)
23. Strepsiptera (stylopids or twisted-
wing parasites)
24. Mecoptera (scorpionflies)
25. Trichoptera (caddisflies)
26. Lepidoptera (moths &
butterflies)
27.Diptera (true flies)
28.Siphonaptera (fleas)
29.Hymenoptera (sawflies,
wasps, ants, bees)
» Called Silverfish
» Found around houses
or outside under
stones or wood
» Fast runners
» Damage books
» Secretive and active at
night.
» Flat, long bodies
» Long antennae
» Three, long, tail like
appendages
Order Collembola - Springtails
A furcula is a
distinguishing
characteristic.
This
“springloaded”
appendage
allows them to
jump 7 or 8
inches.
Ecologically
important as 6 mm or less…i.e. little
“recyclers”. creatures
» Called springtails
» Small & soft
bodied
» Furcula (jumping
mechanism) on
abdomen
» Furcula folds
under the body at
rest
» Found in decaying
plant material
The 7 inch jump 1,063 feet

of a springtail
would be the
equivalent of a
person doing a
backflip over
the Eiffel
Tower…pretty
impressive
biomechanics
going on…do
not try this
» Called Mayflies
» Juveniles are aquatic;
called naiads
NAIAD
» Adults found near
water & don’t feed
» Adults reproduce & die
in 24 hours
ADULT
» Soft bodies with 2 long
Ceri (tail fibers)
» Dragonflies &
damselflies
» Dragonflies hold
clear wings spread
perpendicular to
body at rest
» Damselflies hold
clear wings
together over
abdomen
» Sucking lice
» Parasites of
mammals
» Very small
» Head and body
lice are examples
» Attracted to
children’s fine
hair
» Carry disease
Wings - 2 pr - straight - 1st leathery
Mouthparts - Chewing
Metamorphosis - Paurometabola

• Rear legs
modified for
jumping
• Females with
egg laying tube
•
» Biting lice
» External parasites
on birds &
mammals
» Broad head &
flattened body
» Feed on dead
skin, feathers,
and fur
» Fleas
» Ectoparasites
» Bodies laterally
compressed
» Enlarged hind jumping
legs
» Very short antenna
» Contains
mosquitoes &
flies
» One pair
functional
wings
(halteres)
» Club-shaped
halteres for
balance
» Bodies often
hairy
If Halteres are in front…not a
fly…Strepsiptera. Internal
parasites of insects…not very
common
 Order Diptera -
Flies

Mouthparts can be spongy (left) or

modified into a tube (above) as on a
mosquito. Note mosquito antennae
are feathery while many flies have
them highly reduced (left). Eyes
tend to be large.
 Coleoptera
• Called beetles
• Tough
exoskeleton
• Forewings
called Elytra
•Fly with
membranous
hindwings
•Larva called
grubs
• 2nd most important
Order Chewing or
siphoning mouthparts Adult Pupa
• Complete
metamorphosis
• 4 membranous wings
– usually covered with
scales
– a few wingless
females
• Larvae are caterpillars
Caterpillar
• Woodwasps (also Bees & Ants)
• Foliage & phloem feeders, wood
perforators
• Chewing mouthparts (except bees)
• Complete metamorphosis
• 4 membranous wings - hind wings
smaller; or wingless
• Sawfly and woodwasp larvae are
caterpillar-like
– > 5 pr prolegs that lack crochets
(hooks)
» Wings - 2 pr. Linked, membrane winged
» Mouthparts - Chewing
» Metamorphosis - Complete
» Other - Social, solitary or parasites, 3rd
largest
» Narrow constriction between thorax and
abdomen
» Ovipositor modified into sting
» Wings - 2 pr. Straight if present
» Mouthparts - chewing
» Metamorphosis - Incomplete
» Other - All social, flagellates are
symbiotic
» Castes include soldiers; 5,000,000 in a
colony; huge part of tropical
ecosystems; queen might live 50 years
» Wings – hemelytra
(half-hardened,
half-membranous)
» Mouthparts -
Piercing/sucking -
beak
» Metamorphosis –
Gradual
» Other – pests,
plant parasites,
predators
» EVERY BUG is an insect,
but NOT ALL INSECTS
are bugs!
» True BUGS are in the
Order HEMIPTERA
» Posterior thorax is
triangular; called
SCUTELLUM
» Last 3rd of wing CLEAR
ALL
• Hoppers, aphids, leafhoppers
• Piercing-sucking mouthparts
• Gradual metamorphosis
• 4 membranous wings held
leafhopper
tentlike over back, wingless or
2 wings (male scales)
• Many spp. covered with wax

scale
leafhopper
» Wings - 2 pr,
straight if
present
» Mouthparts -
Piercing/sucking
(plants)
» Metamorphosis
- Incomplete
» Other – leaf and
plant hoppers
» 17 year cicada
» Wings - n/a
» Mouthparts - Biting
» Metamorphosis -
Complete
» Other - all parasites,
flattened to move
between
hairs/feathers
» Sense heat and
jump to host.
» Called earwigs PINCERS

» Long, flat bodies

» Forceps (pincers) on
end of abdomen
» Short, hard forewings
(membranous wings
folded underneath
» Large jaws (mandibles)
on head
EARWIG EATING CATERPILLAR
» Lacewings
» Net veined wings
» Small, delicate
insects
» Long antenna
» Predators on other
insects
» May feed on nectar
» Thrips
» Two pairs of fringed wings; rasping-sucking mouth
» Feed on plant sap
» Termites
» Live in colonies
» Feed on wood
» Soft bodies & short
antenna
» Castes – workers,
soldiers, kings, and
queen
» Scorpion flies
» Last abdominal
segments curved like
scorpion
» Two pairs of narrow
wings
» Head elongated into a
beak (rostrum)
» Long antenna
» Stoneflies
» Aquatic nymphs
» Aerial adults are
short lived
» Make drumming
sound to find
mates
 Carpenter bee
» Bees, ants, wasps
» Narrow waist
connects thorax &
abdomen
» Abdomen curved
downward
» May have stinger
on end of
abdomen
»Insect Societies
˃Ants, bees, termites, and some of
their relatives form complex
associations called societies.
˃A society is a group of closely
related animals of the same species
that work together for the benefit of
the whole group.

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

˃Communication in Societies

+Each species of social insect use

visual, touch, sound, and chemical
signals to communicate
information among members of
the colony.
+Honeybees communicate
information about food through a
series of complex movements.

Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

»Insect Communication
+Insects
communicate
using sound,
visual, chemical,
and other types of
signals.
+Much of their
communication
involves finding a
mate.
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
» Termites, wasps,
bees and ants
form societies
» Have division of
labour
» Different
individuals (called
castes) will have
specialized bodies
to perform their
task in the society
 Termite
» Examples of
Queen castes:
» reproductive
females
(queens)
» reproductive
males
» Workers
 workers » warriors
 
Termite soldier

Worker
» Reproductive males ONLY fertilize the
eggs
» In BEE SOCIETIES, the queen mates
with one or more males only ONCE.
» She receives all the sperm she needs in
that mating
» The successful reproductive male then
dies
» All unsuccessful reproductive males
are turned out of the hive, and soon
die
» Workers do all
the work for the
hive
» Bee workers are
all female and
are able to do all
jobs (except
reproduce)
» Ant and termite
workers are
specialized for
specific jobs
»The Queen Bee produces
“queen substance” that
prevents other females being
able to lay eggs
»When queen substance is low
in the hive, the worker bees
will feed a few female larvae
a special diet which causes
these larvae to develop into
queens
» Worker bees “dance” to tell other
workers where they found food
» Two basic dances: the round dance and
the waggle dance
»The waggle
dance indicates
that food is
farther away
from the hive.
It also
indicates the
direction of the
food.
Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
» PHORESY - carrying another organism
 Preventing entry and establishment of foreign plant and animal
pests, eradication, containment, or suppression of pests established
in limited areas.
 These objectives are accomplished by a variety of means including
 (1) CERTIFICATION that plant materials being moved from
state to state or country to country are pest free,
 (2) INSPECTION of nurseries and plant materials being
transported to detect, identify, and control harmful pests before
they are spread,
 (3) SURVEYS to detect and delineate infestations or
infections of harmful pests which may have inadvertently been
introduced into an area,
(4) the establishment and enforcement of QUARANTINES
where necessary to prevent movement of dangerous pests.
 Physical and mechanical methods are are employed
to destroy pests outright, disrupt normal biological
habits, or modify the environment to discourage pest
activity.
 Include the use of adhesives, sound, screens, or
other barriers, traps, light, heat and refrigeration.
 Handpicking, brushing, crushing, or washing insect
pests from infested trees
 Behavioral control generally employs synthetic
chemicals, which are similar to natural chemicals
utilized by insects in their interactions with trees
(insect pheromones and host tree odors), to disrupt
behavior on which insects normally depend to
successfully mate or locate food or habitat.
 Repellants, confusion or inhibition chemicals prevent
or minimize infestation of susceptible trees.
 Attractants are often used to lure insects to glue or
poison traps.
 Pheromone-baited traps are currently employed as
useful survey and detection tools for insects like the
gypsy moth.
» Cultural control methods
 SANITATION and HOST ERADICATION - removal and/or
destruction of host material (leaves, branches, trees)
infested with insects or exhibiting symptoms of diseases.
 FERTILIZATION, or keeping crops well fed
 IRRIGATION- Moisture deficiencies can render crops
susceptible to a variety of insects and diseases. Note:
overwatering can be just as serious as underwatering.
 ALTERNATIVE HOST ERADICATION- removal and/or
destruction of alternate host plants
 AVOIDANCE- prevention of insect and disease problems
through practices such as planting nonsusceptible
species and preventing injuries to existing trees.
 PROPER SITE SELECTION -planting trees in locations
to which they are well adapted to avoid
unnecessary stress, or planting trees on sites that are
not conducive to pest activity.
 TIMBER STAND IMPROVEMENT involves aspects of
other practices, but includes thinning forest stands
to promote tree vigor and removing undesirable,
pest infested or diseased trees.
 PROPER TIMING of forest and shade tree practices
means planting, thinning, pruning and harvesting of
trees at times when associated pest problems are
less likely to cause serious damage.
 Use of CLEAN PLANTING STOCK, seeds and seedlings
free of harmful pests, is a key element in preventing
insect and disease problems from developing.
 Pesticides are chemicals specifically designed to kill
or harm pests.
 Each pesticide is applicable, either biologically or
legally, to a limited number of pest organisms and
sites.
 No one pesticide is applicable for all situations.
 Pesticides are poisons, thus require judicious and
skillful use.
 In the hands of knowledgeable users, pesticides can
be an important control method.
 All pesticide containers must have labels. READ THE
LABEL!
alert users to the health hazards of a particular pesticide

represent the determined toxicity (poisonous)

levels of pesticides. The order of least to the
highest levels include "Caution", "Warning"
and "Danger". The only pesticide products not
required to display the operative signal word
are those that fall into the lowest toxicity
category by all routes of exposure which
includes oral, dermal, inhalation, and other
effects like eye and skin irritation.
Signal Word Descriptions
CAUTION. means the pesticide product is
slightly toxic if eaten, absorbed through the
skin, inhaled, or it causes slight eye or skin
irritation.
WARNING. Indicates the pesticide product is
moderately toxic if eaten, absorbed through
the skin, inhaled, or it causes moderate eye or
skin irritation.
DANGER. Means that the pesticide product is
highly toxic by at least one route of exposure.
It may be corrosive, causing irreversible
damage to the skin or eyes. Alternatively, it
may be highly toxic if eaten, absorbed
through the skin, or inhaled. If this is the case,
the word “POISON” must also be included in
red letters on the front panel of the pesticide
product label.
A goal of Pest Control Management is
choosing a pesticide with the least
toxicity to people that is still efficient in
controlling a targeted pest. Regardless of
the signal word on the label, it is crucial
to know that every pesticide, regardless
of how low the toxicity. has the potential
to poison people and pets depending
upon the exposed dosage.
Safest Approach To Using Pesticides

If you decide to use pesticides, always use

the least toxic choice that will be the most
productive in controlling pests. Do not use a
more toxic pesticide until all other options
have failed.
Seasonal Definitions:
Dormancy - seasonally recurring period in
life cycle of organism during which growth,
development, and reproduction are
suppressed.
Aestivation – summer;
Autumnal dormancy – fall;
Hibernation – winter;
Vernal dormancy - spring
Diapause - neurohormonally mediated
dynamic state of low metabolic activity.
voltinity - number of generations per year
Generation - offspring from the same parent
group going through their life cycle
together
Brood - individuals from the same batch of
eggs
Cohort - individuals all of the same age
Univoltine - one generation per year)
Multivoltine - many generations per year
Delayed voltine - one generation requires
many years
Examples: grubs, cicadas
» Paedogenesis- .reproduction by otherwise
immature insects (larvae)
» Neotony - sexual maturity in the immature
stage

• Parthenogenesis- .egg development

without sexual fertilization
• Arrhenotoky - parthenogenetic
production of males
• Thelytoky - parthenogenetic
production of females - e.g., aphids
Pests and Pest Status

Pest Definition:
Pest- any living species whose activities,
enhanced by numbers, causes economic
losses to human possessions, directly
threatens human health, or is annoying;

Pest Status- the rank or standing of a pest

relative to the economics of control
Pest Groups

Insects
Weeds
Pathogens
Vertebrates
Pest status categories (described by
Stern et al. 1959)

Subeconomic pest (non-pest) - the

GEP and population fluctuations are
always below the EIL

Occasional pest - the GEP is below

the EIL but population fluctuations
sometimes exceed the EIL
Perennial pest - the GEP is below
the EIL but population
fluctuations frequently exceed the
EIL

Severe pest - the GEP is at or

above the EIL (a very bad
situation)